Division  DT763 
Section  ,S>72/G 


THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN 
NATIVES 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcliive 
in  2015 


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[*    JUN22  1910  * 


THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN 
NATIVES 

THEIR  PROGRESS  AND  PRESENT 
CONDITION 

EDITED  BY 

THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN  NATIVE  RACES 
COMMITTEE 


A  SUPPLEMENT  TO  "THE  NATIVES  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA: 
THEIR  ECONOMIC  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITION" 


NEW  YORK 
E.  P.  BUTTON  AND  COMPANY 
1909 


PRINTED  BY 
HA/ELL,  WATSON  AND  VINKV,  LU., 
LONDON  AND  AYLESBURY, 
ENGLAND. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

LIST  OF  MEMBERS  OF  THE  COMMITTEE    .      .      .  vii 

INTRODUCTION   ix 

CHAPTER  I 

NATIVE   OCCUPATIONS:  THE  LABOUR  QUESTION 

§  I.   Native  Occupations   i 

Introductory   I 

(a)  Changes  in  the  Occupations  of  the  Kraal  Natives      .  lo 

{b)  Farming   12 

{c)  Mining   20 

{d)  Other  Industrial  and  Commercial  and  Domestic  Em- 
ployments   37 

{e)  Professional  Occupations   41 

§  2.   The  Labour  Question   42 

CHAPTER  II 

LAND  TENURE 

§    I.   Introductory   52 

§   2.   Cape  Colony   52 

§   3.   Natal   61 

§   4.   The  Transvaal   66 

§   5.   Swaziland   68 

§   6.   The  Orange  River  Colony   68 

§   7.   The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate      ....  70 

§    8.   Basutoland     ,   71 

§   9.   Southern  Rhodesia   71 

§  10.   Summary   72 

CHAPTER  III 

TAXATION   82 

V 


vi 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IV 

PAGE 

ADMINISTRATION.    By  Sir  Godfrey  Y.  Lagden,  K.C.M.G. 

§  I.    Introductory  98 

§  2.  Existing  Laws  and  Administrative  Systems  .  .  loi 
§  3.   Jurisdiction  and  Duties  of  European  Officers  and 

Native  Chiefs  loS 

§  4.  Councils  as  an  Aid  to  Administration  .  .  .110 
§  5.   The  Future  113 

CHAPTER  V 
LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES 

§  I.    Introductory   121 

§  2.    Definitions  of  Natives   122 

§  3.   Exempted  Persons   125 

§  4.    Bastards  or  Half-castes   126 

§  5.    Illegitimate  Children   127 

§  6.    Operation  of  Native  Law   128 

§  7.    Special  Legislation  as  to  Natives      .      .  .130 

(a)  Marriage   130 

(b)  Succession   133 

§  8.    Defects  of  Present  Law   134 

CHAPTER  VI 

EDUCATION 

§  I.    Introductory   136 

§  2.    Cape  Colony   138 

§  3.   Natal   149 

§  4.    Basutoland   .      .  .155 

§  5.    The  Transvaal   167 

§  6.    The  Orange  River  Colony   171 

§  7.    Rhodesia   172 

§  8.    The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate   176 

§  9.    Summary   177 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:  NATIVE  CHURCHES    .  192 
CHAPTER  VIII 

CONCLUSIONS   227 

STATUTES,  ORDINANCES,  PROCLAMATIONS,  ETC.       .  234 

INDEX  ,      ...  237 


THE 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  NATIVE  RACES 
COMMITTEE 


MEMBERS  OF  COMMITTEE 


Sir  John  Macdonell, 

E.  Bateson,  Esq. 

S.  V.  Blake,  Esq. 

H.  R.  Fox  Bourne,  Esq. 

R.  N.  CusT,  Esq.,  LL.D. 

The  Very  Rev.  the  Dean  of 

Durham,  D.D. 
Francis  W.  Fox,  Esq. 
Hubert  Fox,  Esq. 
Cecil  Hanbury,  Esq. 
Rev.  J.  Henderson  (of  Love- 
dale). 

BouRCHiER  F.  Hawksley,  Esq. 
The  Rev.  Canon  Hicks. 
The  Rev.  Canon  Scott  Hol- 
land. 
D.  A.  Hunter,  Esq. 

Alfred  F.  Fox,  Esq. 

A.  Lister  Harrison,  Esq. 


C.B.,  LL.D.,  Chairman 

Sir  Robert  Hunter. 
Rev.  G.  D.  Mathews,  D.D. 
C.  E.  Maurice,  Esq. 
Rev.  J.  S.  Moffat,  C.M.G. 
Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D. 
A.  F.  MuRisoN,  Esq.,  LL.D. 
H.  S.  Nev/man,  Esq. 
Sir  Alfred  E.  Pease,  Bart. 
P.  J.  Preece,  Esq. 
The  Rev.  Canon  Rawnsley. 
F.  A.  C.  Redden,  Esq. 
Hugh  E.  Seebohm,  Esq. 
Edward  T.  Slater,  Esq. 
Rev.  R.  Wardlaw  Thompson, 
D.D. 

'  Rev.  W.  C.  Willoughby. 

i Joint  Hon.  Secretaries, 
15,  Dean's  Yard, 
Westminster^  S.W. 


vii 


INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  and  scope  of  this  volume  may  be  stated 
in  a  few  words.  Seven  years  ago  the  South  African 
Native  Races  Committee  pubh'shed  the  chief  results  of 
their  inquiries  in  a  book  entitled  "  The  Natives  of  South 
Africa."  Since  that  time  important  changes  have  taken 
place  in  native  affairs,  and  others  are  impending.  Much 
valuable  information  has  become  available.  The  Com- 
mittee believe,  therefore,  that  the  time  has  come  when 
a  supplementary  volume,  describing  the  new  order  of 
things,  dealing  concisely  with  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant developments,  and  stating  some  of  the  chief 
results  of  recent  investigations,  may  be  useful.  They 
have  not  attempted  to  go  over  the  same  ground  as  that 
of  the  previous  book.  The  scope  of  the  present  volume 
is  more  limited.  But  the  Committee  hope  that  some- 
thing may  be  gained  by  concentrating  attention  on  a 
few  features. 

The  years  which  have  passed  since  the  signing  of  the 
Peace  of  Vereeniging  have  brought  many  changes  of 
importance  in  native  affairs,  and  some  of  the  changes 
are  for  the  better.  A  new  spirit  of  progress  is  abroad. 
The  natives  begin  to  do  something  for  their  own  improve- 
ment. They  value  education  more  than  they  did.  They 
have  opened  schools.  They  have  established  churches. 
They  have  their  own  newspapers  and  their  own  political 
organisations.  Along  with  healthy,  though  sometimes 
misdirected,  activity  is  a  growing  power  of  initiative — a 

ix 


X 


INTRODUCTION 


source  of  anxiety  at  present  but  of  promise  for  the  future. 

On  the  whole,  too,  there  is  a  more  sympathetic  feeling 
among  the  whites.  Societies  for  the  study  of  native 
questions  have  been  formed  on  much  the  same  lines  as 
this  Committee.  The  futility  of  a  barren  policy  of  re- 
pression is  recognised.  The  South  African  colonies  begin 
to  face  the  native  problem  with  a  new  sense  of  its  im- 
portance, its  interest,  and  its  possibilities.  The  labours 
of  the  Inter-Colonial  Commission  on  Native  Affairs  of 
1903-5  and  the  Natal  Commission  of  1906-7  have  resulted 
in  the  collection  of  a  mass  of  information  and  in  sugges- 
tions which  claim  the  immediate  attention  of  the  Colonial 
Governments.  The  work  of  those  Commissions  is  already 
beginning  to  bear  fruit.  Questions  are  approached  with 
a  more  open  mind.  Increased  support  is  being  given  to 
native  education,  and  in  various  ways  the  position  of 
the  natives  has  been  improved. 

Not  the  least  significant  of  the  recent  developments 
is  the  joint  action  which  has  been  taken  by  the  Colonial 
Governments  in  investigating  matters  affecting  the  natives. 
The  possibility  of  a  South  African  Native  policy  is  at 
length  beginning  to  emerge  from  conflicting  methods 
and  theories.  Grave  differences  of  opinion  still  exist, 
but  the  colonies  have  at  least  united  in  investigating 
the  question.  The  reports  of  the  Commissions  have 
provided  a  basis  for  a  uniform  and  progressive  system 
of  administration,  and  the  urgent  need  of  agreement  with 
regard  to  it  will  no  doubt  lead,  and  possibly  more  rapidly 
than  many  imagine,  to  the  adoption  of  more  harmonious 
systems  of  administration.  Divergencies  of  local  con- 
ditions will  no  doubt  necessitate  different  administrative 
methods.  But  agreement  on  the  general  principles  of 
native  policy  no  longer  seems  outside  the  range  of 
practical  politics. 

In  the  following  pages  the  Committee  have  endeavoured 


INTRODUCTION 


xi 


to  trace  the  remarkable  economic  and  social  changes 
among  the  natives,  the  progress  of  education  among  them, 
thie  growth  of  the  native  churches,  and  recent  develop- 
ments in  regard  to  taxation  and  the  holding  of  land. 
They  are  also  glad  to  include  in  this  volume  a  chapter 
on  the  administration  of  natives  in  the  various  colonies 
by  Sir  Godfrey  Lagden,  whose  work  as  Resident  Com- 
missioner of  Basutoland,  Commissioner  of  Native  Affairs 
in  the  Transvaal,  and  Chairman  of  the  Inter-Colonial 
Commission  will  be  familiar  to  all  students  of  the  native 
question. 

The  Committee  have  endeavoured  to  discuss  the 
questions  considered  in  this  volume  with  appreciation 
of  their  difficulty,  in  the  light  of  facts,  and  in  no  censorious 
spirit.  They  recognise  the  grave  responsibility  of  the 
white  colonists  of  South  Africa  in  administering  the  affairs 
of  a  large  and  increasing  population  of  natives  living 
under  widely  differing  conditions  and  fast  acquiring  new 
ideas  and  ambitions.  They  are  aware  that  the  native 
question  presents  problems  which  can  only  be  gradually 
solved  by  local  knowledge  and  experience.  But  they 
trust  that  their  efforts  to  collect  information  and  to  submit 
suggestions  may  be  of  some  assistance  in  removing  mis- 
apprehensions and  promoting  right  views.  Many  past  efforts 
on  the  part  of  a  white  population  to  deal  with  problems 
elsewhere  akin  to  those  which  now  lie  before  South  Africa 
have  been  more  or  less  failures.  The  hope  of  those  who 
have  prepared  this  book  is  that  it  may  be  otherwise 
in  that  country,  if  only  there  is  a  desire  to  be  just  and 
patient  and  to  remember  the  responsibihties  attaching  to 
the  possession  of  power. 

The  Committee  welcome  the  establishment  in  Johannes- 
burg and  Durban  of  societies  with  like  objects  to  their 
own.  They  believe  that  there  is  ample  room  for  the 
work  of  such  societies  and  others. 


xii 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Committee  desire  to  record  their  thanks  to  their 
correspondents  in  South  Africa  and  others  to  whom  they 
are  indebted  for  much  valuable  information  and  advice. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  former  book,  the  preparation  of 
this  volume  has  devolved  upon  a  small  Executive  Com- 
mittee, and  other  members  of  so  large  a  General  Committee 
cannot  be  held  responsible  for  particular  statements  and 
conclusions. 


THE  SOUTH  AFRICAN  NATIVES 


CHAPTER  I 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES :  THE  LABOUR 
Q  UESTION 

§  I.  Native  Occupations 

Before  the  rule  of  the  white  man  was  firmly  established, 
the  life  of  the  natives  alternated  between  fierce  intertribal 
conflicts  and  the  hardly  less  demoralising  stagnation  into 
which  they  sank  in  times  of  peace.  Among  military  peoples 
such  as  the  Zulus  and  Matabele  the  men  were  mainly 
engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  war  and  the  chase.  The  virtues 
of  courage  and  obedience  were  inculcated  by  a  training  of 
merciless  severity,  the  fruits  of  which  may  be  seen  to-day 
in  the  splendid  physique  and  fine  manners  of  these  natives, 
often  combined  with  lack  of  mental  energy  and  contempt 
for  manual  labour.  When  not  engaged  in  war  or  hunting, 
all  tribal  natives  found  their  chief  occupations  in  tending 
their  flocks  and  herds  and  raising  crops  of  maize  or  mealies 
and  Kafir  corn.  Much  of  the  agricultural  work  was,  and  is 
still,  left  to  the  women,  who  hoe  and  weed  the  fields,  reap 
and  gather  in  the  harvest — sometimes  with,  sometimes 
without,  the  help  of  the  men — strip  the  mealies  from  the 
cob,  and  thresh,  winnow  and  grind  the  grain.  The  women 
also  make  the  native  beer  from  Kafir  corn,  carry  the  water 
and  firewood,  and  do  the  cooking.  The  men  milk  the  cows 

I 


2    OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOtJR  QUESTION  [cHAP. 


and  sometimes  work  in  the  fields  ;  the  older  boys  look  after 
the  goats  and  cattle,  and  the  smaller  boys  and  girls  scare 
the  birds  from  the  crops.  This  division  of  work  varies 
somewhat  in  the  different  districts.  In  Mashonaland  the 
men  cultivate  their  fields  side  by  side  with  their  wives, 
and,  in  the  summer  at  any  rate,  take  a  fair  share  of  the 
work.  But,  as  a  general  rule,  the  men  seem  to  have  an 
easier  life  in  the  kraals  than  the  women,  although  their 
indolence  has  frequently  been  exaggerated.  Both  the  men 
and  women  have  often  considerable  manual  dexterity. 
They  construct  their  huts  with  skill.  They  make  wooden 
pitchers,  dishes  and  milk-pails  and  simple  pottery,  weave 
baskets  and  grass  mats,  twist  wire  bangles,  make  string 
from  rushes  or  bark,  and  are  fond  of  bead-work  and  wood- 
carving.  In  the  days  when  iron  implements  could  not 
easily  be  bought  from  the  traders  they  are  said  to  have 
produced  fair  iron-work,  and  they  still  manufacture  some 
rough  metal  utensils.  But  their  progress  in  industrial  pur- 
suits has  been  insignificant.  Apart  from  European  training, 
they  have  developed  no  form  of  trade  or  commerce.^ 

Such,  stated  briefly,  were  the  ordinary  occupations  of  the 
natives  before  the  white  man's  demand  for  labour  set  them 
moving  over  the  country  to  new  and  sometimes  uncongenial 
employments.  In  their  tribal  society  they  seemed  to  have 
reached  a  stage  at  which  incentives  to  progress  failed  them. 
They  lived  under  easy  climatic  conditions  ;  their  wants  were 
few ;  and  the  communal  policy  and  rigid  custom  of  tribal 
life  gave  individual  tribesmen  little  opportunity  or  induce- 
ment to  improve  their  lot.  To  make  any  further  advance 
they  needed  the  stimulus  which  contact  with  more  pro- 
gressive communities  could  alone  supply. 

To  the  natives  have  now  come  the  fruits  of  the  present 
era  of  peace  and  comparative  prosperity.  Devastating 

*  Much  information  with  regard  to  the  kraal  life  of  the  natives  may 
be  found  in  Mr.  Dudley  Kidd's  "  The  Essential  Kafir." 


l]  NEED  OF  SPIRIT  OF  INDUSTRY  3 

hordes  no  longer  sweep  over  the  country.    White  magis- 
trates secure  the  tribesmen  from  the  tyranny  of  a  Tshaka 
or  a  Dingan  ;  and  most  of  the  natives  are  now  practically 
disarmed.    But  the  cessation  of  tribal  strife  was  an  artificial, 
not  an  organic,  change.    It  was  not  the  result  of  a  growing 
spirit  of  industry,  but  an  incident  of  white  administration. 
It  found  the  natives  unprepared  to  take  advantage  of  the 
new  conditions.    The  respect  for  law  and  authority  which 
they  had  acquired  in  their  tribal  life  enabled  competent 
administrators  to  guide  them  successfully  into  the  ways  of 
peace  and  good  order.    The  spirit  of  industry  had  still  to 
be  developed.    The  men  continued  to  look  with  contempt 
on  manual  labour,  which  during  generations  of  warfare  had 
been  left  almost  exclusively  to  the  women,  and  their  scanty 
needs  supplied  no  effective  incentives  to  progress.  Hence 
the  establishment  of  intertribal  peace  made  for  a  time  a 
perilous  breach  in  native  life.    In  many  districts  the  men 
were  content  to  subsist  in  idleness  on  the  toil  of  their  wives 
and  daughters.    Demoralised  by  indolence,  the  natives  of 
South  Africa  might  easily  have  gone  the  way  of  other 
native  peoples  whose  vigour  has  been  sapped  by  contact 
with  civilisation.    Two  things  have  saved  them  from  this 
fate — the  influence  and  teaching  of  the  missionaries,  and 
the  almost  insatiable  demand  of  the  white  colonists  for  un- 
skilled labour.    The  missionaries  have  raised  the  standard 
of  native  life  ;  the  white  employers  have  supplied  strong 
inducements  to  industry.    And  this  demand  for  labour  has 
not  only  given  the  natives  the  opportunity  of  satisfying 
new  needs  which  the  spread  of  Christianity  and  education 
has  evoked  ;  it  has  itself  been  a  most  effectual  educational 
agency.     It  has  brought  the  natives  into  touch  with  the 
white  communities.    If  it  has  exposed  them  to  the  vices  of 
civilisation,  it  has  also  done  much  to  stimulate  among  them 
a  new  and  healthy  .spirit  of  progress.     Operating  upon 
primitive  instincts,  economic  forces   are  singularly  far- 


4    OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 


reaching  in  their  effects.  While  building  up  their  own 
fortunes,  white  employers  have  set  moving  a  series  of 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  native  life  destined  to  have  a 
decisive  bearing  on  the  future  history  of  South  Africa. 
The  tenacity  with  which  the  natives  cling  to  their  tribal 
life  prevents  these  changes  taking  place  with  alarming 
rapidity.  However  slowly  they  may  be  accomplished, 
they  are  the  first  symptoms  of  a  veritable  social  revolution. 
Natives  cannot  come  into  contact  with  the  freedom  of 
civilised  life,  enter  into  individual  contracts  and  secure 
earnings  formerly  undreamt  of,  and  yet  retain  their  old 
communal  ideas  and  submit  to  the  caprice  and  exactions 
of  their  tribal  superiors.  Slowly  but  surely  the  economic 
changes  must  undermine  the  tribal  societies,  already 
weakened  by  the  spread  of  education  and  by  the  growing 
influence  of  the  white  magistrate. 

Partly  from  racial  feeling,  partly  from  force  of  circum- 
stances, the  whites  in  South  Africa  rely  almost  exclusively 
on  the  natives  for  unskilled  labour.  Whether  wise  or  not, 
this  policy  has  made  the  question  of  native  labour  a  matter 
of  vital  importance  to  all  the  white  communities.  There  is 
indeed  a  distinct  danger  of  its  being  regarded  too  exclu- 
sively as  the  determining  factor  with  regard  to  native 
policy.  The  education  of  natives,  the  amount  and  incidence 
of  their  taxes,  their  rights  with  regard  to  the  occupation  and 
tenure  of  land,  and  other  matters,  are  too  often  considered 
less  on  their  general  merits  than  in  reference  to  their 
bearing  on  the  supply  of  native  labour.  This  tendency 
accounts  for  many  mistakes  as  to  native  affairs.  Its 
existence  makes  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  labour 
problem  essential  to  a  right  appreciation  of  the  views 
generally  held  in  South  Africa  with  regard  to  native  policy. 

On  the  whole,  the  demands  of  the  whites  for  native 
labour  have  been  met  with  remarkable  readiness.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  male  natives  now  enter  the  service  of 


0 


MIGRATORY  LABOUR 


5 


white  employers.  Nevertheless,  the  tribal  natives  still 
cling  with  an  intense  attachment  to  their  life  on  the  tribal 
lands.  Even  when  they  are  attracted  by  high  wages  to 
the  industrial  centres,  they  generally  stay  only  for  a  few 
months  at  a  time,  and  return  to  their  kraals  as  soon  as 
they  have  completed  their  contracts.  Thus  the  Kafir  who 
works  on  the  Rand  seldom  becomes  a  genuine  miner.  In 
almost  all  cases  he  is  an  agriculturist  or  herdsman 
temporarily  working  in  a  mine  in  order  to  obtain  the 
money  he  needs  for  the  purchase  of  cattle  or  for  some 
other  purpose  connected  with  his  tribal  life.  Upon  this 
system  of  migratory  labour  most  of  the  industries  of  South 
Africa  depend.  With  the  exception  of  the  farmers  who 
provide  accommodation  and  land  for  their  employees 
and  their  families,  the  whites  in  South  Africa  rely  on 
the  migrant  native  for  practically  all  purposes  involving 
manual  labour.  The  system  no  doubt  has  its  serious 
disadvantages.  Natives  continually  leave  their  employ- 
ment just  when  they  are  becoming  efficient.  A  good 
harvest  often  makes  them  reluctant  to  seek  work,  and 
the  cost  and  difficulty  of  organising  this  fluctuating  supply 
of  labour  are  a  source  of  constant  anxiety.  But  incon- 
venient and  uneconomical  as  the  system  is,  it  has  many 
advantages  for  employers.  It  provides  them  with  a  vast 
supply  of  cheap  labour ;  it  burdens  them  with  no  pauper 
class ;  it  gives  rise  to  no  labour  organisations ;  it  leaves 
unskilled  labour  with  little  or  no  representation  in  South 
African  politics.  Its  greatest  recommendation  is  that  it 
preserves  the  tribal  and  family  life  of  the  natives,  and  to 
some  extent  avoids  the  evils  which  invariably  arise  when 
uneducated  tribal  natives  are  allowed  to  live  in  the  towns. 
Tribal  discipline  and  tribal  sentiment  supply  the  only 
moral  restraints  that  as  yet  have  any  effective  hold  on  this 
class  of  natives,  who  are  unfitted  for  the  unguarded 
freedom  of  civilised  life.    Unless  effectual  precautions  are 


6  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap,  i 

taken  to  keep  them  apart  from  the  white  population,  and  to 
prevent  them  obtaining  intoxicating  h'quors,  even  their 
short  visits  to  industrial  centres  too  often  result  in  their 
returning  to  their  kraals  contaminated  by  the  vices  of  the 
towns.  It  is  true  that  these  dangers  are  at  length  being 
recognised,  and  steps  are  being  taken  by  municipalities  and 
employers  to  place  the  natives  employed  in  the  towns  in 
separate  locations  under  competent  supervision.  But 
whatever  precautions  may  be  taken,  it  is  undesirable  to 
induce  the  natives  to  abandon  their  tribal  life  prematurely  ; 
and  for  the  present  the  system  of  temporary  employment 
is  a  necessity. 

In  most  parts  of  South  Africa  the  labourers  are  usually 
natives  of  Bantu  stock,  but  in  the  west  of  Cape  Colony, 
where  the  Bantus  are  not  numerous,  much  of  the  labour  is 
supplied  by  Hottentots  and  "  coloured  "  people  of  mixed 
races.  The  Hottentots,  of  whom  there  are  about  86,000  in 
the  Colony,  are  generally  in  the  service  of  white  employers, 
often  as  domestic  servants  or  farm  labourers.  The 
coloured  people,  who  number  about  300,000,  form  a  large 
proportion  of  the  population  in  most  of  the  western 
districts.  Many  of  them  are  working  on  the  farms,  roads, 
railways  and  docks,  and  as  domestic  servants,  assistants  in 
stores  and  laundries,  clerks,  drivers,  masons,  carpenters, 
painters  and  labourers,  and  in  many  other  occupations. 
They  seem  to  be  less  closely  attached  to  the  land  than 
the  pure  Bantu  natives,  and  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  them  are  engaged  in  commercial  and  industrial 
employments.  In  the  other  colonies  they  are  far  fewer, 
but  as  they  are  generally  more  progressive  than  the 
ordinary  natives,  they  are  often  useful  members  of  the 
community.^ 

'  A  large  amount  of  labour  is  also  supplied  by  Indians,  Chinese, 
and  the  so-called  "  Malays,"  but  these  immigrants  do  not  come  within 
the  scope  of  the  present  volume. 


TABLE  A 

POPULATION  OF  BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICA 

(As  Shown  in  Census  of  1904.) 


Area 
Sq.  Miles. 

European 
or  White. 

Bantu. 

Mixed  and 

other 
Coloured 
Races. 

Total. 

Cape  Colony 

276,99s 

579.741 

1,424,787' 

405,276= 

2,409,804 

Natal  .... 

07.  lOQ 

904,041 

107,604^ 

I  108  7?d. 

Transvaal    .       .  1 

1 1 1 , 1 96 

207.277'' 

Q17  127^ 

J  J.  j'r/ 

I  260  OC  I 

Swaziland   .       .  j 

6,536 

890 

84,529 

72 

85,491 

Orange  River  Colony  . 

CO,  ?Q2 

142.670 

220. 14.0 

■587  lie 

Southern  Rhodesia  ( Ma- 

ollUUalclllt.1  a11v-1   IVX  aIa 

beleland)  . 

143,830 

12,623 

591.197' 

1.944' 

605,764 

Basutoland  . 

10,293 

895 

347,731 

222 

348,848 

Bechuanaland  Protec- 

torate 

275,000 

1,004 

119,411 

(about) 

361 

120,776 

Total 

909,613 

1,132,218 

4.637,972 

566,513 

6,336,703 

'  Includes  Fingos,  310,720  ;  and  Kafirs  and  Bechuanas,  1,114,067. 

^  Includes  Hottentots,  85,892  ;  Namaquas,  62  ;  Bushmen,  4,168  ;  Korannas, 
1,138;  Griquas,  6,289;  Mixed,  279,662;  Malays,  15,682;  Indians,  8,489; 
Mozambiques,  1,433;  Chinese,  1,380;  and  others,  1,081. 

^  Includes  Hottentots,  100  ;  Griquas,  983  ;  Mixed,  3, 160  ;  Indians  and 
other  Asiatics,  100,918  ;  Mauritians,  1,232  ;  St.  Helena,  1,150  ;  and  others,  61. 

*  Includes  military  forces. 

'  Includes  144,231  Portuguese  and  East  Coast  natives,  many  of  whom  were 
only  temporary  residents. 

*  Includes  Cape  and  Bastard,  10,077  ;  Mixed  and  Other  Coloured,  12,965  ; 
Indians,  9,979  ;  non- British  Asiatics,  1,411 ;  Malays,  904  ;  and  other  Asiatics 
(British  subjects),  201. 

'Includes  Hottentots,  2,785;  Griquas,  683;  Mozambiques,  242;  Other 
Mixed,  11,481  ;  Asiatics,  253  ;  and  Other  Coloured,  43. 

'  Includes  6,991  natives  from  outside  British  South  Africa. 

'  Includes  Asiatics  and  Other  Coloured  persons. 

7 


8   OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap,  i 

An  analysis  of  the  census  statistics  of  1904  (which  have 
been  summarised  in  the  annexed  Table  B)  reveals  three 
noteworthy  facts  : 

(i)  the  smallness  of  the  class  of  dependents,  (ii)  the  pre- 
dominance of  agriculture  as  a  native  occupation,  and 
(iii)  the  wide  range  of  industrial,  commercial  and  profes- 
sional employments  in  which  natives  are  engaged. 

The  smallness  of  the  dependent  class,  composed  mainly 
of  children  at  school  or  not  engaged  in  some  specified 
employment,  is  to  some  extent  accounted  for  by  the  early 
age  at  which  native  children  begin  to  work.  But  it  also 
shows  that  the  majority  of  the  adult  natives,  though  often 
reluctant  to  engage  in  hard  continuous  labour,  rank,  never- 
theless, in  the  bread-winning  classes.  The  predominance 
of  agriculture  is  even  greater  than  it  appears  from  the 
figures  in  the  annexed  table,  for  a  large  proportion  of  the 
natives  who  were  returned  as  engaged  in  commercial  or 
industrial  pursuits  were  primarily  agriculturists,  and 
were  only  temporarily  engaged  in  other  occupations.  The 
elaborate  tables  of  occupations  compiled  by  the  census 
officials  in  Cape  Colony,  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  show  that  large  numbers  of  natives  are 
employed  in  many  capacities  in  industrial,  and,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  in  commercial  employments,  and  that  their  positions 
demand  very  different  degrees  of  responsibility  and  skill. 
By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  these  natives,  it  is  true, 
fail  to  rise  above  the  lower  grades  of  work.  Most  of  them 
are  simply  unskilled  manual  labourers,  but  an  increasing 
number  are  finding  their  way  into  skilled  employments. 
Their  competition  in  various  trades  is  already  regarded 
with  anxiety  by  the  white  artisans.  Some  thousands  have 
been  trained  by  the  missionaries  as  ministers,  evangelists  and 
teachers  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  there  is  little  opening  for  them  in 
the  higher  professions.  Apparently  at  present  only  excep- 
tional natives  are  capable  of  qualifying  themselves  for  such 


1=  « 


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Total  Males&  Females 

Total  Females  . 

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In  Southern  Rhodesia  there  were,  at  the  time  of  the  Census,  27,057  natives 

in  the  employment  of  Europeans,  engaged  in  the  following  occupations  : 

Males.  Females,  Total. 
B, S. A.  police,  constables  and  gaol  warders  .       .        422  —  422 
Farm,  plot  and  market  garden  labourers     .       .       3,484  20  3,504 
Persons  engaged  in  domestic  duties    .                    6,743  248  6,991 
,,                   on  railways      ....       2,483  —  2,483 
,,           ,,       about  offices,  shops  and  stores      1,054  —  1,054 
,,       working  for  carpenters,  and  bricklayers        351  —  351 
General  labourers  and  all  other  undefined  out- 
door workers  1,213  —  1,213 

Woodcutters  759  —  759 

Mine  workers  10,280  —  10,280 

Total  26,789  268  27,057 


lO  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

positions.  But  the  progress  which  they  have  made  in 
other  directions  has  already  produced  a  large  and  im- 
portant class  of  natives  with  requirements  and  capabilities 
very  different  from  those  of  the  agricultural  tribes- 
man. 

In  the  following  pages  it  is  proposed  to  consider  in  some 
detail  the  changes  which  these  new  occupations  have 
caused  in  the  ordinary  tribal  life  of  the  natives,  the  con- 
ditions of  their  various  employments,  and  some  of  the 
social  aspects  of  the  economic  revolution  which  is  so  quietly 
but  effectually  taking  place. 

{a )  Changes  in  the  Occupations  of  the  Kraal  Natives 

Although  in  many  respects  the  kraal  life  of  the  natives 
often  remains  singularly  unaltered,  the  demand  for  labour 
has  already  led  to  significant  changes  in  their  habits  and 
customs.  They  are  still  primarily  agriculturists  or  herds- 
men working  on  their  own  account,  but  a  very  large 
proportion  of  them  have  now  also  become  temporary 
wage-earners.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  able-bodied 
men  to  leave  their  homes  from  time  to  time  to  enter  the 
service  of  white  employers.  For  this  purpose  they  often 
travel  great  distances.  As  a  rule  they  do  not  remain 
employed  for  more  than  about  six  months.  In  this  time 
they  can  often,  without  much  difficulty,  save  about  ;^io  or 
;^I2  out  of  their  earnings,  and  with  this  money  they  generally 
return  to  their  kraals  and  resume  their  normal  occupa- 
tions. While  this  practice  takes  them  into  many  other 
employments,  it  has  greatly  strengthened  their  position 
as  agriculturists.  With  the  savings  which  they  bring 
home  they  are  able  to  make  good  the  ravages  of  rinder- 
pest among  their  cattle  and  to  buy  the  implements  which 
they  need  for  the  cultivation  of  their  fields.  In  many 
districts  large  numbers  of  European  ploughs  have  in  this 


ij  PROGRESS  OF  KRAAL  NATIVES  II 

way  been  purchased  by  natives  ;  and,  as  ploughing  involves 
the  use  of  cattle,  the  introduction  of  the  plough  has  com- 
pelled the  men  to  take  a  share  in  the  work  of  the  kraal. 
But  the  old  wasteful  methods  of  cultivation  are  still 
generally  adhered  to,  manuring  is  almost  unknown,  and 
even  the  ploughing  is  seldom  done  efficiently.  Some  of 
the  more  progressive  natives  are  beginning  to  grow 
produce  for  the  market,  and  in  the  east  of  Cape  Colony 
natives  keep  flocks  of  merino  sheep  and  sell  the  wool  for 
export ;  but  most  kraal  natives  only  attempt  to  raise  such 
crops  as  they  need  for  their  own  use.  The  prevalence  of 
cattle  diseases  is  a  further  check  on  the  prosperity  of  these 
natives,  whose  wealth  is  mainly  invested  in  their  flocks 
and  herds.  But  there  are  many  indications  that  their 
possessions  are  increasing,  and  that  their  standard  of 
living  is  gradually  rising.  They  are  purchasing  large 
quantities  of  clothing,  blankets  and  other  European  goods.^ 
In  progressive  districts  the  huts  are  being  improved,  and 
stone  buildings  beitij  erected.  Considerable  sums 
have  been  contr!'^mt>_J  by  the  natives  for  educational 
and  religious  purposes.  The  statistics  contained  in  the 
census  with  regard  to  their  agricultural  stock  also  supply 
evidence  of  growing  prosperity.  To  take  one  instance, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  a  progressive  tribal 
community,  the  returns  for  Basutoland,  which  is  practically 
a  native  reserve  (with  a  population  of  about  350,000), 
showed  that  in  1904  there  were  63,677  horses,  209,883 
cattle,  14,388  ploughs  and  1,320  waggons  iri'  the  country. 
Notwithstanding  the  inertia  of  tribal  life,  there  are 
significant  signs  of  coming  change.    The  kraal  native  is 


'  A  trader  in  Basutoland  informed  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  of 
1903-5  that  the  Basuto  were  purchasing  blankets,  cotton  goods,  dress 
materials  (cotton  and  woollen),  hats,  boots,  shirts,  tables,  chairs,  bed- 
steads, lamps,  hut  doors,  sardines,  jam,  golden  syrup,  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 
etc.— Qs.  39,478,  39,489,  39.511. 


12  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

beginning  to  feel  the  stimulus  of  new  ideas,  and  is  learning 
to  look  after  his  own  interests.  Year  by  year  he  submits 
with  increasing  reluctance  to  the  exactions  of  his  chiefs 
and  headmen,  and  finds  the  obligations  which  tribal 
custom  imposes  upon  him  more  irksome  and  distasteful. 
And  the  pressure  of  population  is  making  it  increasingly 
difficult  for  young  men  to  live  in  the  old  way  within  the 
tribal  limits.  Native  methods  of  cultivation  are  extremely 
wasteful,  and  some  of  the  tribal  communities  are  already 
outgrowing  the  land  available  for  their  use.  It  is  therefore 
fast  becoming  necessary  for  them  to  adopt  better  methods 
of  cultivation  or  to  find  new  outlets  for  some  of  their 
members. 

(b)  Farming 

The  farmer  has  two  considerable  advantages  over  other 
competitors  for  native  labour.  He  offers  the  natives  a 
congenial  and  healthy  form  of  employment.  He  can 
provide  them  with  land,  on  which  they  can  live  with  their 
families  in  their  accustomed  manner.  These  inducements 
have  attracted  large  numbers  of  natives  to  the  farms,  some 
as  labourers  desiring  employment,  others  as  labour-tenants 
in  search  of  a  home.  Both  these  classes  of  natives  work 
for  the  farmer,  but  in  distinct  capacities  and  on  different 
terms.  The  labourer  or  "  volunteer,"  as  he  is  sometimes 
called,  generally  stays  only  for  a  few  months  at  a  time, 
and  remains  in  the  continuous  employment  of  the  farmer 
throughout  his  period  of  service.  The  labour-tenant,  on 
the  contrary,  lives  permanently  on  the  farm,  and  gives  his 
services  when  required  during  a  portion  of  the  year  as 
a  condition  of  his  tenancy. 

Some  farmers  employ  their  volunteer  labourers  by  the 
day ;  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  pay  a  monthly  wage 
and  to  provide  the  labourer  with  food  and  lodging,  and 
sometimes  with  a  small  piece  of  land  for  the  support  of 


i]  NATIVES  ON  FARMS  1 3 

his  family.  The  rate  of  wage  varies  greatly  in  the  different 
districts.  In  the  west  of  Cape  Colony  40s.  a  month 
appears  to  be  about  the  current  wage,  and  some  wine- 
farmers  give  their  labourers  2s.  to  3^.  and  two  bottles  of 
wine  a  day.  In  parts  of  the  Transvaal  where  labour  is 
scarce  the  pay  is  equally  high,  and  in  the  Orange  River 
Colony  farmers  sometimes  pay  30J.  a  month  ;  but  these 
rates  are  exceptional,  and  apparently  on  most  South 
African  farms  the  labourers  only  receive  from  lOs.  to  20s. 
a  month,  in  addition  to  their  food  and  accommodation,  or 
IS.  to  IS.  6d.  a  day.  Some  farmers  still  pay  their  natives 
in  stock,  a  practice  which  seems  to  be  unsatisfactory  on 
both  sides  ;  the  farmers  complaining  that  their  labourers 
overlook  any  rise  in  the  value  of  stock,  and  the  natives 
sometimes  having  to  accept  payment  for  their  services  in 
"  measly  goats."  This  system  of  remuneration  is  not 
calculated  to  improve  the  relations  between  the  farmers  and 
their  employees,  and  will  no  doubt  have  to  be  abandoned 
sooner  or  later  for  cash  payments. 

If  the  farmer  takes  an  intelligent  interest  in  his  natives,  the 
position  of  the  farm  labourer  has  many  advantages.  He  is 
able  to  live  on  the  land  with  his  family  ;  he  is  engaged  in 
work  for  which  by  his  tastes  and  habits  he  is  well  adapted  ; 
and  his  employer  often  provides  him  with  clothing  and 
medical  attendance.  Moreover,  from  a  good  employer  he 
receives  not  only  protection  but  a  practical  training,  which 
is  not  the  least  useful  form  of  native  education.  It  is  not 
surprising  therefore  that  a  farmer  who  treats  his  employees 
considerately  and  pays  them  a  reasonable  wage  seems 
generally  able  to  obtain  the  labour  he  needs,  and  can 
sometimes  get  labourers  to  stay  with  him  for  a  number  of 
years.  But  in  far  too  many  cases  the  farmer  takes  little 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  natives,  and  as  a  class  the 
farm  labourers  are  generally  underpaid  and  miserably 
housed  and  fed.    "  I  think,"  writes  Mr.  J.  Simpson,  the 


14  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chaP, 

Resident  Magistrate  at  Lusikisiki,  in  his  reply  to  the 
queries  of  the  Native  Affairs  Commission, 

if  the  farmer  could  be  induced  to  give  his  servants, 
particularly  shepherds,  more  pay  and  better  house 
accommodation,  and  a  better  class  of  food,  the  labour 
difficulty,  so  far  as  he  is  concerned,  would  disappear. 
When  one  considers  that  a  farmer  will  place  in  sole 
charge  of  a  "  boy  "  i,ooo  or  more  sheep,  worth  perhaps 
£i,ooo,  and  only  pay  him  from  ys.  to  i^s.  per  month, 
and  provide  him  with  a  house,  in  many  cases  not 
sufficiently  decent  for  a  favourite  dog,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  the  servant  will  take  that  interest  in  his 
master's  property  that  he  would  if  it  were  otherwise. 
...  It  is  this  want  of  consideration  for  the  comfort  of 
the  native  servant  that  keeps  him  at  his  kraal,  even 
if  he  has  to  exist  on  half  rations. 

It  is  clear  that  to  some  extent  the  remedy  for  the  alleged 
scarcity  and  inefficiency  of  farm  labour  lies  in  the  hands 
of  the  farmers  themselves.  Better  treatment,  fair  wages  and 
proper  accommodation  would,  no  doubt,  go  far  to  solve  the 
labour  problem  on  many  South  African  farms.  In  justice 
to  the  farmer  it  must  be  remembered  that  his  position  as 
an  employer  has  its  peculiar  difficulties.  His  need  of 
labour  is  not  constant.  He  generally  has  to  rely  on 
servants  who  will  not  work  continuously  for  more  than  half 
the  year  ;  and  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  offer  remunera- 
tion at  the  rates  obtainable  at  the  mines  or  in  the  towns. 
Moreover,  at  those  seasons  of  the  year  when  he  needs 
most  labour,  and  needs  it  most  urgently,  he  invariably  finds 
it  most  difficult  to  secure.  When  he  wants  to  plough  his 
land  or  reap  his  crops,  the  natives  are  engaged  in  similar 
work  at  their  kraals,  and  are  naturally  unwilling  to  go  out 
to  labour.  At  these  seasons,  too,  the  competition  of  other 
farmers  for  native  labourers  is  most  active,  and  they  are 
least  willing  to  allow  labour  to  be  recruited  from  their 
tenants.     In  the  east  of  Cape  Colony  this  difficulty  is 


l]  LABOUR  TENANTS  15 

sometimes  met  by  gangs  of  native  sheep-shearers  and 
harvesters,  who  go  from  farm  to  farm  as  their  services 
are  required,  and  many  farmers  in  that  colony  still  prefer 
to  rely  entirely  on  volunteer  labour. 

But  the  increasing  demand  for  natives  at  the  mines,  on 
the  railways,  and  in  the  towns  has  made  this  system  of 
working  the  farms  more  and  more  precarious,  and  most 
farmers  now  obtain  much  of  their  labour  from  natives 
living  on  their  farms.   Owing  to  the  enormous  size  of  most 
of  the  farms,  the  farmer  is  often  unable  to  work  the  whole 
of  his  land,  and  therefore  finds  it  convenient  to  allow 
parties  of  natives  to  settle  on  it  on  condition  that  they 
work  for  him  when  he  requires  their  services.  Natives 
whose  tribes  have  been  broken  up  in  war,  or  who  have 
desired  to  escape  from  the  capricious  authority  of  their 
chiefs,  have  often  been  glad  to  find  a  home  with  the 
farmer  on  these  terms.     The  arrangements  between  the 
farmers  and  these  labour-tenants  vary  considerably  on 
different  farms.    The  farmer  allows  them  land  to  cultivate 
and  grazing  for  their  cattle,  for  which  he  sometimes  charges 
a  small  rent,  and  in  some  cases  he  lends  them  cattle  for 
ploughing,  or  ploughs  their  land  for  them,  if  they  desire 
it.    The  labour-tenants,  on  their  side,  undertake  that  they 
or  their  sons  will  work  for  the  farmer  at  a  low  wage  when 
required  during  part  of  the  year  ;  and  they  are  sometimes 
employed  by  the  farmer  during  other  parts  of  the  year 
as  voluntary  labourers.    They  are  not,  however,  as  a  rule, 
at  liberty  to  seek  work  elsewhere  without  the  farmer's 
consent.    On  many  farms  the  labour-tenants  occupy  their 
land  on  a  sort  of  metayer  tenancy  known  as  "  ploughing 
on  halves "  or  "  thirds,"  the  tenant  handing  over  to  the 
farmer  a  half  or  a  third  of  the  produce  of  the  land  which 
he  cultivates.    This  system  is  only  practicable  on  farms 
with  a  considerable  acreage  of  cultivatable  land,  but  it 
appears  to  be  popular  with  the  natives  and  remunerative 


r6  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chaP. 


to  the  farmers.  The  system  of  labour-tenancy  has  un- 
doubtedly done  much  to  meet  the  requirements  both  of 
the  farmer  and  the  natives,  and,  when  the  arrangements 
between  them  are  clearly  defined  and  the  contracts  are 
made  with  the  tenants  themselves,  it  often  works  satis- 
factorily enough.  But  it  frequently  happens  that  farmers 
are  content  to  rely  on  vague  verbal  arrangements  of 
doubtful  validity,  often  made  with  the  heads  of  kraals,  and 
in  these  cases  disputes  constantly  arise  as  to  the  terms  of 
the  tenancies.  In  Natal  the  magistrate's  court  is  some- 
times "  inundated  "  with  cases  of  this  kind,  and  the  friction 
between  landlords  and  tenants  in  that  colony  is  said  to  be 
"  daily  becoming  more  acute."  Moreover,  in  many  dis- 
tricts labour-tenancy  has  developed  into  almost  unlimited 
"  squatting,"  and  the  supply  of  available  labour  is  seriously 
restricted  by  farmers  keeping  an  excessive  number  of 
natives  practically  tied  to  their  land  even  when  their 
services  are  not  required.  The  squatters  are  an  unprogres- 
sive  class,  and  many  farmers,  from  fear  of  stock-thieving, 
strongly  object  to  them  as  neighbours.  The  practice  of 
squatting  retards  the  advance  of  the  natives  and  leads  to 
many  difficulties,  and  it  undoubtedly  encourages  absentee 
landlordism  and  incompetent  farming.  So  serious  are 
these  drawbacks  to  the  system  that  the  Natal  Native 
Affairs  Commission  recommended  that  the  law  should 
recognise  only  two  classes  of  farm  occupants,  the  servant 
and  the  tenant,  the  servant  paying  no  rent,  and  the  tenant 
being  free  to  dispose  of  his  labour. 

The  census  returns  show  that  in  1904  there  were  about 
135,000  Bantu  natives,  and  about  58,000  coloured  persons 
of  "  mixed  and  other  "  races  employed  on  farms  in  Cape 
Colony,  the  Transvaal,  the  Orange  River  Colony  and 
Southern  Rhodesia  ;  and  to  these  figures  must  be  added 
a  large  proportion  of  the  40,000  labourers  similarly  em- 
ployed in  Natal.    These  numbers  would  no  doubt  be 


I] 


INEFFICIENCY  OF  FARM  LABOURERS 


17 


considerably  increased  if  squatting  were  judiciously  re- 
stricted and  farm  labourers  could  depend  on  receiving  a 
fair  wage  and  considerate  treatment.  On  the  other  hand, 
most  farm  labourers  are  extremely  inefficient.  They  are 
accustomed  to  primitive  methods  of  cultivation,  and  little 
trouble  is  generally  taken  to  train  them  for  their  work. 
The  Director  of  the  Natal  census  pointed  out  that  there 
were  iy4  hands  employed  on  the  farms  in  that  colony  to 
every  hundred  acres  in  crops,  as  against  5'38  hands  generally 
required  for  the  effective  ordinary  cultivation  of  that  area  in 
England ;  and  the  majority  of  the  Transvaal  Labour  Com- 
mission of  1903,  in  estimating  the  labour  requirements  of 
the  Transvaal  farms,  adopted  a  basis  of  one  native  to  every 
three  acres.  These  figures  indicate  a  lack  of  labour-saving 
machinery  and  the  inefficiency  of  farm  labour.  More  pro- 
gressive methods  of  farming  are  greatly  needed,  both  to 
economise  the  labour  supply  and  to  increase  the  agricultural 
output  of  the  country,  but  they  are  impracticable  so  long 
as  farmers  are  content  to  rely  on  untrained  and  indifferent 
labourers.  For  their  own  benefit  they  would  do  well  to 
take  a  more  active  interest  in  the  instruction  and  welfare 
of  their  employees,  for  with  proper  training  many  natives 
make  excellent  labourers.  In  a  communication  addressed 
to  this  Committee,  Mr.  Livingstone  Moffat,  a  farmer  of 
long  standing  in  the  Eastern  Province,  writes  : 

There  is  a  most  striking  contrast  between  the 
average  location  Kafir  and  the  average  native  who 
has  lived  for  some  years  on  a  farm  :  the  former  is  as 
impudent  as  the  latter  is  civil  ;  the  one  is  a  loafer  and 
skulker  at  work  besides  being,  as  a  rule,  inefficient  ; 
the  other  one  cannot  but  respect  when  one  sees  how 
he  can  handle  his  spade  or  team.  .  .  . 

The  thoroughly  well-bred  Matabeles  (said  Mr. 
E.  A.  Hull,  a  farmer  in  Rhodesia,  when  giving 
evidence  before  the  Native  Affairs  Commission)  can 
really  be  taught  anything.  In  my  experience  with 
natives  I  have  found  that  every  farmer  who  deals  with 

2 


1 8  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 


them  has  to  pay  as  much  attention  to  them  as  to  his 
team  of  bullocks,  that  is,  he  has  to  select  the  wheelers 
and  the  leaders.  You  find  some  boys,  especially  the 
"  Amazansi "  (that  is  the  pure-bred),  who  will  learn 
anything,  from  driving  teams  to  working  machinery, 
and  the  more  responsibility  you  put  on  them  the 
better  they  are.  Others  you  find  exactly  the  reverse, 
and  as  soon  as  you  put  them  in  a  responsible  position 
they  abuse  it  immediately.  I  may  say  that  personally 
I  have  been  very  successful.  Although  people  will 
tell  you  that  the  Matabele  will  not  stay  with  you,  I 
have  boys  who  have  remained  with  me  for  seven 
years,  all  the  time  I  have  been  in  the  country,  and 
who  are  absolutely  capable  men  to-day,  though  they 
were  perfectly  raw  when  I  started  with  them. 

But  too  often  the  necessary  instruction  is  neglected,  and 
the  farmer  seeks  to  increase  the  number  of  his  employees 
rather  than  to  improve  the  quality  of  their  work. 

Progressive,  up-to-date  farming  (writes  Mr.  Living- 
stone Moffat)  is  the  exception,  and  primitive  methods 
requiring  large  numbers  of  hands,  instead  of  labour- 
saving  machinery,  the  rule.  .  .  .  Native  labour  has 
been  used  because  it  was  the  only  kind  available,  and 
till  of  late  in  any  quantity.  The  mistake  has  been 
not  to  improve  the  quality.  The  crying  need  is 
Education  and  the  discouraging  of  the  squatting 
system  outside  native  reserves.  There  is  a  grand 
future  (he  adds)  in  the  agricultural  and  pastoral 
development  of  South  Africa,  but  it  is  not  going  to 
be  accomplished  by  uncivilised  natives,  working  in 
their  crude  and  primitive  fashion.  So  long  as  there 
is  the  present  tendency  to  leave  agriculture  in  the 
hands  of  natives,  who  are  uneducated,  shiftless,  and 
ignorant  of  the  first  principles  of  agriculture,  and  have 
never  learned  habits  of  industry,  so  long  will  that 
development  be  postponed,  and  capital  will  seek  other 
spheres  which  promise  to  employ  greater  intelligence 
and  more  scientific  methods  in  the  direction  and 
employment  of  labour  as  a  means  of  production. 


During  recent  years  there  has  been  a  striking  increase  in 
Cape  Colony  in  the  number  of  natives  and  coloured  persons 


NATIVE  FARMERS 


19 


who  have  become  farmers  on  their  own  account.  In  1904 
out  of  the  40,942  farmers  in  that  Colony  3,544  were  Bantu 
natives  and  3,008  were  coloured  people  of"  mixed  or  other  " 
races.  In  Natal  there  were  166  coloured  farmers  (including 
assistants),  and  a  number  of  natives  in  that  Colony  have 
been  purchasing  land  ;  but  the  exact  number  of  native 
farmers  has  not  been  ascertained.  In  the  Orange  River 
Colony  there  were  416  native  and  37  coloured  farmers  ;  but 
in  the  Transvaal  there  were  no  native  farmers  and  only  43 
coloured. 

Native  farmers  are  not  unfrequently  joint-owners  of  land 
which  they  have  subscribed  to  purchase,  but  considerable 
prices  are  sometimes  paid  for  farms  by  individual  natives. 
A  witness  before  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  stated : 
"  I  sold  a  farm  to  a  native  for  ;^2,ooo  in  the  Komgha  dis- 
trict not  very  long  ago,  and  I  had  1,600  offered  to  me  for 
a  farm  in  the  Peddie  district  by  a  native  less  than  a  fort- 
night ago,  who  was  prepared  to  put  down  the  money. 
A  year  ago  I  sold  a  quit-rent  farm  in  the  Stutterheim  dis- 
trict to  a  native  for  .£^750.  I  could  give  further  instances." 
A  good  many  colonists  regard  the  advent  of  the  native 
farmer  with  considerable  apprehension,  and  the  majority 
of  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  were  of  opinion  that  the 
natives'  right  to  purchase  land  ought  to  be  restricted  to 
certain  prescribed  areas  and  that  land  so  purchased  should 
not  be  communally  occupied.  Some  of  the  farms  owned  by 
natives  are  little  better  than  locations  of  squatiers,  and 
farms  of  this  kind  ought  no  doubt  to  be  confined  to  suit- 
able districts.  But  other  native  farms  are  of  a  different 
character,  and  no  sufficient  reason  seems  to  have  been  given 
for  placing  difficulties  in  the  way  of  those  natives  who 
by  their  industry  and  thrift  are  able  to  purchase  land  and 
are  prepared  to  occupy  it  in  an  unobjectionable  manner. 

A  striking  instance  of  the  interest  which  some  of  the 
'  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5,  Q.  8619. 


20  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

natives  are  beginning  to  take  in  the  improvement  of  their 
agriculture  occurs  in  the  report  of  Mr.  VV.  T.  Brownlee,  the 
Resident  Magistrate  for  the  District  of  Buttervvorth,  for 
1906.  "  A  few  of  the  more  progressive  natives  of  this  dis- 
trict," he  writes,  "  have,  during  the  year,  started  an  Agri- 
cultural Society,  which  has  for  its  main  object  the  improve- 
ment of  methods  of  agriculture  and  farming  generally. 
I  hope  to  see  this  Society  grow,  and,  because  its  inception 
and  birth  are  entirely  spontaneous,  I  believe  it  will  be  of 
great  benefit  to  the  people  of  this  district." 


(c)  Mining 

Unlike  the  agriculture  of  South  Africa,  the  great  gold 
mining  industries  of  the  country  have  been  developed  with 
extraordinary  rapidity,  and  they  now  provide  by  far  the  most 
important  of  the  industrial  occupations  of  the  natives.  But 
in  a  land  of  conservative  habits  the  enterprising  methods  of 
the  mine-owners  have  been  somewhat  disturbing  anomalies. 
It  has  in  consequence  been  extremely  difficult  to  readjust 
the  economic  conditions  fast  enough  to  meet  their  require- 
ments ;  and  in  their  relations  with  the  natives  this  difficulty 
has  unfortunately  become  exceptionally  acute.  Although  the 
natives  are  steadily  becoming  more  industrious  and  great 
numbers  of  them  seek  employment  at  the  mines,  the  rapid 
expansion  of  these  industries  has  inevitably  put  an  excessive 
strain  on  the  available  supply  of  labourers,  and  has  made 
the  labour  question  one  of  the  most  insistent  and  perplexing 
of  South  African  problems.  In  their  anxiety  to  force  the  pace 
the  mine-owners  have  not  always  been  patient  or  reasonable 
in  their  demands,  and  they  have  sometimes  advocated  meas- 
ures, such  as  the  imposition  of  labour  taxes,  which  it  is 
impossible  to  justify.  Undoubtedly,  however,  in  obtaining 
labour  for  their  vast  and  progressive  undertakings  they  have 
a  task  of  unusual  difficulty.    Many  natives  have  a  strong 


I] 


NATIVES  ON  MINES 


21 


dislike  to  underground  work  ;  those  who  come  to  the  mines 
from  British  South  Africa  generally  stay  only  for  a  few 
months  and  have  continually  to  be  replaced  ;  and  in  many 
cases  the  labourers  have  to  be  recruited  from  great  distances 
without  adequate  means  of  transport.  To  overcome  these 
difficulties  it  has  been  necessary  to  organise  an  elaborate 
system  of  recruiting,  to  provide  facilities  for  travelling  to 
and  from  the  mines,  and  to  offer  exceptionally  attractive 
terms  of  employment.  It  has  also  been  necessary  to  guard 
the  natives  from  fraud  and  ill-treatment  and  to  devise  and 
enforce  hygienic  precautions  to  protect  them  from  the 
diseases  to  which  when  employed  underground  they  are 
peculiarly  liable.  In  all  these  directions  important  progress 
has  been  made  during  the  last  few  years,  and  some  of  the 
improvements  which  have  been  effected  are  sufficiently 
noteworthy  to  claim  at  least  a  brief  examination. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1901  important  measures  were 
taken  by  the  Transvaal  Government  to  place  the  recruiting 
and  employment  of  natives  for  the  Rand  mines  on  a  more 
satisfactory  basis.  Recruiting  was  restricted,  as  in  the  other 
colonies,  to  properly  licensed  labour  agents,  who  were  made 
liable  to  heavy  penalties  for  misconduct.  Licences  were 
required  for  all  compound  overseers  in  the  labour  districts 
who  had  charge  of  fifty  or  more  natives.  The  pass  system 
was  made  less  onerous,  and  pass  officers  were  required  to 
ascertain  that  natives  in  charge  of  labour  agents  understood 
the  terms  of  their  contracts  and  had  entered  into  them 
voluntarily.  Contracts  of  employment  for  more  than  a  year 
were  made  illegal,  unless  sanctioned  by  the  Native  Com- 
missioner. The  punishment  of  flogging  for  desertion  and 
offences  against  the  pass  laws  was  abolished.  And,  to  en- 
sure the  proper  treatment  of  the  natives  while  in  employ- 
ment, a  number  of  Inspectors  of  Natives  in  the  labour 
districts  were  appointed  in  the  following  year  to  inquire  into 
and  redress  or  report  grievances,  to  deal  with  breaches  of 


22  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

discipline  and  minor  contraventions  of  official  regulations, 
and  to  settle  disputes  between  natives  of  a  civil  nature. 
By  these  measures  a  fairly  adequate  system  of  official  super- 
vision seems  to  have  been  established  for  the  protection  of 
natives  both  in  making  and  carrying  out  their  contracts, 
and  the  Native  Department  has  been  thereby  enabled  to 
keep  in  touch  with  the  natives  in  their  employments  and  to 
deal  with  any  legitimate  grievances.  A  further  reform  of 
the  utmost  importance  was  effected  by  the  prohibition,  under 
severe  penalties,  of  the  supply  of  intoxicants  to  any  coloured 
person.  The  supply  of  Kafir  beer  by  employers  was  sub- 
sequently legalised,  but  the  excessive  drinking  which  used 
to  prevail  on  the  Rand  seems  to  have  been  effectually 
checked.  A  grave  danger  to  the  natives  has  thus  been 
removed,  and  :the  efficiency  of  their  labour  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Facilities  of  a  very  useful  kind  have  been  provided 
for  the  safe  custody  and  transmission  of  the  natives' 
earnings.  Before  the  late  war  the  Governments  of  Cape 
Colony,  Natal,  and  Basutoland  had  established  separate 
agencies  at  Johannesburg  to  enable  natives  on  the  Rand 
to  remit  money  to  their  homes.  As  these  offices  had 
been  much  appreciated  by  the  natives,  the  Transvaal 
Government  in  1902  opened  a  general  Deposit  and  Remit- 
tance Agency,  under  the  Native  Affairs  Department,  at 
Johannesburg,  and  subsequently  established  branch  offices 
at  Pretoria  and  Germiston.  Until  1906  the  other  Govern- 
ments contributed  to  its  support,  but  in  that  year  the 
Natal  Government  withdrew  from  the  arrangement,^  and 
the  agency  was  transferred  to  the  Postal  Department. 
Considerable  sums  are  received  and  transmitted  by  the 
agency,  the  remittances  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1906,  amounting  to  ;^29,i94,  the  deposits  to  ;^'io,855,  the 
withdrawals  to  ;£'io,426,  and  ;£'6,500  being  held  at  the  end 
^  In  1907  the  Natal  Government  established  a  separate  agency. 


NATIVES  ON  THE  RAND 


23 


of  the  year  on  fixed  deposit  bearing  interest.  The  agency 
has  been  of  great  assistance  to  the  natives  as  a  means  of 
communicating  with  their  families  and  friends,  as  their 
kraals  are  often  out  of  reach  of  the  ordinary  post.  It  is 
thus  in  various  ways  an  extremely  useful  institution,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  magistrates  and  district  officials  will 
encourage  natives  to  take  advantage  of  it.  In  addition 
to  this  agency,  the  Transvaal  Government  in  igo6  estab- 
lished a  Native  Labour  Bureau  for  the  reception,  medical 
examination,  and  registration  of  natives  recruited  for  the 
Rand  from  British  South  Africa.  It  is  understood  that 
this  bureau  is  not  a  recruiting  agency,  but  it  should  prove 
a  valuable  institution  both  to  the  natives  and  their  employers. 
A  fee  of  2s.  6d.  is  charged  for  each  native  who  passes  through 
the  bureau. 

The  mine-owners  have  done  much  during  recent  years 
to  make  the  position  of  their  employees  more  satisfactory. 
But  for  some  time  after  the  war  they  had  great  difficulty 
in  obtaining  an  adequate  supply  of  natives.  This  was 
partly  due  to  the  increasing  demand  for  labour  at  high 
wages  in  other  industries,  and  to  the  fact  that  many 
natives,  owing  to  their  large  earnings  during  the  war,  were 
for  a  time  indisposed  to  leave  their  homes.  But  the  difficulty 
was  certainly  aggravated  by  the  injudicious  action  of  the 
mine-owners  in  reducing  the  rate  of  wages.  On  the  ground 
that  the  wages  paid  on  the  Rand  before  the  war  were 
excessive,  the  rates  were  in  1900  reduced  by  about  a  third. 
The  dissatisfaction  of  the  natives  at  this  step  undoubtedly 
tended  to  discourage  them  from  seeking  employment  at 
this  centre.  The  old  rates  were  restored  in  1903.  But 
for  some  time  afterwards  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  as  to 
wages  continued  among  the  natives,  and  the  return  to  the 
higher  rates  did  not  at  once  lead  to  any  great  increase  in 
the  supply  of  labour.  During  these  years  the  position  on 
the  Rand  became  extremely  critical.    The  mine-owners 


24  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

represented  that  the  available  native  labour  in  South  Africa 
was  insufficient  for  their  needs,  and  claimed  that  it  should 
be  supplemented  by  the  introduction  of  Chinese  coolies. 
This  proposal  evoked  a  vigorous  opposition.  It  was  urged 
that  the  labour  resources  of  the  country  had  not  been 
exhausted  ;  that  whites,  as  v/ell  as  natives,  could  with 
advantage  be  employed  even  for  unskilled  work,  and  that 
the  requirements  of  the  mines  had  been  exaggerated. 
The  complicated  character  of  these  questions  called  for 
careful  investigation,  and  in  1903  the  Transvaal  Labour 
Commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  possibility 
of  meeting  the  labour  requirements  of  the  Colony  from 
Central  and  Southern  Africa.  This  Commission  reported 
"  that  the  demand  for  native  labour  for  the  Transvaal 
mining  industry  is  in  excess  of  the  present  supply  by  about 
129,000  labourers;  and,  whilst  no  complete  data  of  the 
future  requirements  of  the  whole  industry  are  obtainable,  it 
is  estimated  that  the  mines  of  the  Witwatersrand  alone  will 
require,  within  the  next  five  years,  an  additional  supply  of 
196,000  labourers."  It  also  found  that  there  was  a  large 
deficiency  of  labour  for  the  agriculture,  railways  and  other 
industries  of  the  Colony  ;  that  there  was  no  adequate  supply 
of  labour  in  Central  and  Southern  Africa  to  meet  these 
requirements,  and  that  the  use  of  white  unskilled  labour 
had  not  been  shown  to  be  practicable.  Two  of  the 
Commissioners,  however,  presented  a  minority  report,  in 
which  they  strongly  protested  against  these  conclusions, 
and  maintained  that  115,250  labourers  should  be  sufficient 
for  the  gold  and  coal  mines.  The  report  of  the  Com- 
mission was  followed  in  1904  by  an  ordinance  legalising  the 
importation  of  Chinese  coolies  for  employment  at  the  mines 
under  stringent  conditions,  precluding  them  from  engaging 
in  other  occupations  and  ensuring  their  repatriation  on 
the  termination  of  their  contracts.  By  the  end  of  that 
year  about  20,000  coolies  were  at  work  on  the  Rand,  and 


l]  CHINESE  LABOUR  2$ 

in  December  1906  the  number  had  risen  to  52,917.  But 
at  the  end  of  1905  the  Imperial  Government  had  prohibited 
any  further  importations,  unless  already  contracted  for, 
and  after  the  grant  of  self-government  to  the  Colony  the 
Transvaal  Government  decided  that  the  employment  of 
Chinese  labourers  in  the  mines  should  cease  "at  the 
earliest  possible  moment."  The  coolies  are  therefore  being 
steadily  repatriated  as  their  contracts  expire.  At  the  end 
of  1907  there  were  still  35,676  coolies  in  the  employment 
of  the  mining  companies,  but  24,016  of  these  were  to 
return  to  China  during  the  present  year. 

The  introduction  of  the  Chinese  has  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  labour  question  on  the  Rand  ;  but  the  con- 
sideration of  this  much-debated  subject  lies  outside  the 
scope  of  the  present  volume.  The  experiment  may  have 
served  a  temporary  purpose.  It  was,  however,  open  to 
grave  objections.  It  provoked  bitter  and  wide-spread 
controversies.  It  brought  into  South  Africa  a  new  and 
unwelcome  racial  difficulty,  and  from  many  points  of  view 
it  is  well  that  it  is  not  to  be  continued. 

The  mine-owners  have  now  to  rely  on  measures  for 
increasing  the  supply  and  efficiency  of  native  labour,  and 
they  have  already  done  much  to  make  the  conditions  of 
employment  on  the  mines  more  attractive  to  the  natives. 
The  rates  of  wages  have  been  raised.  The  compounds  in 
which  the  natives  are  accommodated,  and  to  which  they  are 
confined  at  night  after  9  p.m.,  have  been  made  more  com- 
modious and  sanitary.  Special  care  is  taken  to  provide  good 
and  sufficient  food,  the  rations  generally  including  meat, 
vegetables  and  Kafir  beer  twice  a  week,  besides  the  daily 
allowance  of  mealies,  biscuits,  coffee  and  lime-juice.  The 
mealie  food  to  which  the  natives  are  accustomed  is,  how- 
ever, extremely  cheap,  and  even  with  these  improvements 
the  average  monthly  cost  of  the  raw  material  for  food 
and  medical  attendance  for  coloured  employees  on  the 


26  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

Transvaal  gold  mines  during  1905-6  was  only  Js.  per  head. 
In  consequence  of  complaints  of  ill-treatment  from  some 
of  the  Cape  Colony  natives,  the  Cape  Government  in  1903 
sent  Mr.  W.  T.  Brownlee,  with  a  number  of  headmen  from 
native  districts,  to  inquire  into  the  condition  and  treatment 
of  natives  working  at  and  near  Johannesburg.  This  depu- 
tation made  a  careful  investigation  with,  on  the  whole, 
satisfactory  results.  The  food  was  found  to  be  "  sufficient 
and  wholesome,"  and  the  compounds  fairly  comfortable  ; 
and  there  were  few  complaints  of  serious  ill-treatment.  But 
it  was  noticed  that  almost  all  the  native  overseers  carried 
sjamboks,  which  in  some  cases  appeared  to  be  used  freely, 
and  complaints  were  made  of  misunderstandings  as  to  the 
rates  of  wages  and  of  the  misrepresentations  of  labour 
agents.  Steps  have,  however,  been  taken  by  the  Native 
Affairs  Department  and  the  mine-owners  to  remedy  these 
grievances.  Overseers  found  guilty  of  assaults  on  natives 
have  been  punished  ;  the  licences  of  labour  agents  con- 
victed of  misrepresentations  have  been  cancelled  :  and,  to 
avoid  misunderstandings  as  to  wages,  natives  have  been 
registered  at  a  daily  rate  of  pay.  Better  arrangements 
have  also  been  made  for  their  transport  by  rail,  and  rest- 
houses  have  been  provided  on  various  routes  for  their 
accommodation.  In  1906  Mr.  Brownlee,  accompanied 
by  Mr.  A.  H.  Stanford,  again  visited  Johannesburg  on 
behalf  of  the  Cape  Government,  and  reported  that  at 
the  compounds  which  they  inspected,  with  one  excep- 
tion, the  labourers  were  "  well  treated  and  well  fed," 
and  spoke  in  high  terms  of  their  managers.  There 
were,  however,  complaints  of  the  conduct  of  the  native 
overseers,  and,  at  one  mine,  of  ill-treatment  by  white 
miners  underground. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  during  the  last  few  years 
there  has  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the  health  of 
the  natives  working  on  the  Rand.    In  a  memorandum  of 


i]  HEALTH  OF  NATIVES  ON  THE  RAND  27 

the  Native  Affairs  Department  in  March  1904^  it  was 
stated  that  "  a  striking  testimony  to  the  favourable  terms 
and  general  hygienic  conditions  under  which  natives  are 
at  present  employed  on  the  mines  is  to  be  found  in  the 
contrast  in  health,  physical  fitness,  and  general  appearance 
between  natives  arriving  and  those  returning  to  their 
homes.  Many  come  to  work  in  a  more  or  less  emaciated 
condition,  but  few  leave  who  are  not  in  robust  health  and 
have  not  reaped  the  benefits  of  regular  work,  better  food 
and  better  living  conditions  than  they  are  accustomed 
to  in  their  own  homes."  That  the  hygiene  on  these 
mines  requires  most  careful  attention  has  long  been  evident 
from  the  high  mortality  among  the  natives  who  work  on 
them.  In  February  1904  Lord  Milner  informed  the 
Colonial  Secretary  that  "  the  high  rate  of  mortality  in 
mines  is  the  weakest  point  in  our  armour,  and  though 
mining  can  never  be  a  healthy  employment,  the  death-rate 
ought  to  be  enormously  reduced."  During  the  preceding 
year  (1903)  the  average  death-rate  had  been  no  less  than 
7r25  per  thousand  ;  and,  although  this  appalling  figure 
may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  incautious  employment  of 
natives  of  poor  physique,  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was 
largely  to  be  attributed  to  defective  accommodation  and  the 
neglect  of  necessary  precautions.  Since  that  date  great 
efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Native  Affairs  Department 
and  the  mine-owners  to  reduce  the  mortality  to  a  more 
normal  rate.  Outbreaks  of  scurvy  have  been  checked  by 
providing  lime-juice  and  vegetables  as  regular  articles  of 
diet,  and  the  still  greater  danger  from  pneumonia  and  other 
pulmonary  diseases  has  been  guarded  against  by  erecting 
change  houses  at  shaft  heads,  by  supplying  the  natives 
with  coats  or  blankets  when  leaving  work,  and  by  other 

'  See  Transvaal  Blue  Book  containing  Correspondence  relating  to 
Conditions  of  Native  Labour  employed  in  the  Transvaal  Mines  (Col. 
2025),  p.  66. 


28  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

necessary  precautions.  Improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  lighting,  ventilation,  and  sanitary  arrangements  of 
the  compounds,  and  a  number  of  hospitals  have  been 
provided,  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  excellent.  Recruits 
are  subjected  to  medical  examination  before  they  are 
engaged.  The  introduction  of  natives  from  north  of 
latitude  22°  during  the  winter  months  has  been  prohibited. 
Carefully  considered  regulations  as  to  diet,  accommodation 
and  other  matters  have  been  promulgated  under  the 
Coloured  Labourers'  Health  Regulations  Ordinance  of  1905. 
These  measures  have  had  a  most  salutary  effect.  In  the 
year  1905-6  the  death-rate  among  the  natives  in  the  mines 
had  fallen  to  45"54i  per  thousand  ;  in  the  following  year  it 
showed  a  further  decline  to  34  020  ;  and  in  1907  it  was 
31724.  This  remarkable  improvement  may  well  encour- 
age the  mine-owners  and  the  officials  of  the  Native  Affairs 
Department  to  continue  to  give  this  important  matter  their 
vigilant  attention.  A  majority  of  the  mining  companies 
have  now  voluntarily  adopted  a  scheme  for  providing 
compensation  for  accidents  to  natives,  and  in  1905-6  a  total 
amount  of  £4,g42  lys.  gd.  was  distributed  to  the  bene- 
ficiaries. The  Native  Affairs  Department  has  drawn  the 
attention  of  other  large  employers  to  the  advantages  of  an 
arrangement  of  this  kind,  and  its  representations  are 
stated  to  have  been  received  sympathetically. 

Before  the  year  1900  no  adequate  organisation  existed 
for  collecting  the  immense  force  of  native  labourers 
required  on  the  Rand.  But  in  that  year,  in  order  to  avoid 
competition  for  labour  between  the  numerous  companies 
and  to  prevent  the  employment  of  incompetent  or  un- 
scrupulous labour  agents,  the  Rand  Native  Labour 
Association  was  reconstructed  under  the  name  of  the 
Witwatersrand  Native  Labour  Association,  with  wide 
powers  to  recruit  and  distribute  natives  for  the  mines. 
Each  company  that  joined  the  Association  received  the 


RECRUITING  OF  NATIVE  LABOURERS  29 


quota  of  natives  to  which  it  was  entitled  under  the 
articles  of  association,  but  it  was  prohibited  from  employing 
natives  independently.  Nearly  all  the  mining  companies 
became  members,  and  a  great  recruiting  monopoly  was 
thus  established.  This  powerful  body,  with  its  great 
influence  and  ample  funds,  has  now  established  a  wide- 
spread and  carefully  devised  system  of  collecting  labour. 
Its  returns  for  1907  show  that  in  that  year  it  succeeded  in 
obtaining  no  fewer  than  100,082  natives  from  the  following 
sources  : 


Transvaal   6,233 

Swaziland   80 

Bechuanaland  I 

Cape  Colony   5,201 

Basutoland  and  Orange  River  Colony        .       .  1,858 

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate      .       .       .  488 

Province  of  Mozambique   47,656 

Local   38,565 


Total  100,082 


For  every  native  imported  from  the  Portuguese  territories 
of  Mozambique  a  sum  of  1 3^.  is  payable  to  the  Portuguese 
Government,  and  a  further  sum  of  lOi'.  has  to  be  paid  to 
the  Government  by  the  native  on  his  return  for  each  year 
of  his  service.  A  charge  of  6d.  per  month  has  also  to  be  paid 
by  the  employer  of  any  Mozambique  native  who  has  changed 
his  employment  or  re-engaged.  Notwithstanding  these  im- 
posts, the  Association  has  found  the  province  of  Mozambique 
by  far  the  most  productive  and  satisfactory  of  its  recruiting 
grounds.  The  natives  from  these  territories  are  engaged 
on  twelve  months'  contracts,  at  a  wage  of  \s.  6d.  per  day, 
and  they  seem  to  have  no  strong  dislike  to  underground 
work,  as  they  frequently  renew  their  contracts  for  a  further 
six  months.^    These  Portuguese  natives  must,  therefore, 

'  See  the  speech  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Witwatersrand  Native 
Labour  Supply  Association  at  the  annual  meeting  on  March  29,  1906. 


30  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

year  by  year,  be  taking  home  considerable  earnings,  and 
it  would  be  particularly  interesting  to  know  what  effects 
are  being  produced  in  the  kraals  of  Mozambique  by  this 
influx  of  wealth.  In  British  Central  Africa  and  Rhodesia 
natives  are  engaged  on  the  same  or  similar  terms.  For 
natives  from  the  Transvaal,  Swaziland,  Bechuanaland, 
Cape  Colony,  Basutoland  and  the  Orange  River  Colony 
the  rate  of  pay  is  2s.  per  day  for  underground  work,  and 
IS.  Sd.  per  day  for  surface  work,  subject  to  the  recognised 
task  of  the  mine  being  performed.  In  the  case  of  these 
natives  a  six  months'  contract  has  been  adopted,  but  Cape 
Colony  natives  may  engage  for  four  months  on  agreeing  to 
refund  25^.  for  their  railway  fare,  Bechuanaland  and  West 
Transvaal  natives  for  three  months,  and  East  Transvaal 
natives  for  four  months,  on  agieeing  to  repay  los.  towards 
their  fare.  The  rates  of  pay  mentioned  above  represent 
the  maximum  paid  for  unskilled  work,  but  much  higher 
rates  are  paid  for  work  involving  skill  or  responsibility. 
Some  of  the  native  employees  on  the  Rand  earn  as  much 
as  £4  or  £s  a  month,  and  a  native  compound  manager 
informed  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  that  he  was 
receiving  £26  10s.  per  month.^  With  the  exceptions 
mentioned  above,  the  Association  pays  all  railway  fares, 
Government  dues  and  other  expenses  incurred  in  bringing 
the  natives  to  the  mines,  and  it  has  expended  considerable 
sums  in  providing  depots  and  rest-houses.  It  employs  a 
large  number  of  licensed  labour  agents  and  a  host  of 
native  runners,  who  go  from  kraal  to  kraal  inviting  the 
natives  to  come  out  to  work,  and  guide  those  who  wish 
to  do  so  to  the  rest-houses  and  camps  of  the  Association. 
Before  proceeding  to  the  Rand,  natives  engaged  by  an 
agent  enter  into  contracts  before  a  Government  official, 
and,  if  a  doctor  is  available,  they  are  medically  examined, 
and  those  who  are  physically  unfit  are  sent  home.  As 
1  The  Native  Affairs  Commission  1903-5. — Qs.  44,  431-2. 


I]  RECRUITING  OF  NATIVE  LABOURERS  3 1 

soon  as  an  agent  has  collected  a  gang  of  labourers  he 
sends  them  to  the  Association's  depot  at  Johannesburg. 
From  some  districts,  owing  to  the  absence  of  railways,  the 
whole  or  part  of  the  journey  has  to  be  accomplished  on 
foot,  and  along  such  routes  the  Association  has  provided 
rest-houses,  where  the  natives  can  obtain  shelter  and  food 
at  the  end  of  each  day's  march.  Natives  who  come  from 
the  warmer  districts,  and  consequently  wear  little  clothing, 
are  supplied  with  clothes,  the  cost  of  which  is  recovered 
from  their  wages ;  and  small  advances  are  sometimes 
made  to  enable  natives  to  pay  their  taxes  before  leaving 
home.  On  arriving  at  the  depot  at  Johannesburg  they 
are  supplied  with  food,  and,  when  necessary,  with  extra 
blankets.  In  wet  or  cold  weather  fires  are  provided.  After 
twenty-four  hours'  detention  in  the  depot  they  are  medically 
examined,  and  those  who  are  found  to  be  fit  for  work  are 
sent  on  to  their  employers.  Some  of  those  who  arrive  in 
a  weak  condition  are  detained  in  the  compound  until  they 
are  passed  by  the  doctor.  The  others  are  returned  to 
their  homes,  unless  they  are  seriously  ill  and  desire  to 
remain  in  the  Association's  hospital.  Sick  natives  often 
wish  to  return  home  at  once,  and  care  seems  to  be  taken 
in  these  cases  to  provide  escorts  and  medical  attendance 
when  necessary. 

In  consequence  of  the  high  mortality  among  the  natives 
obtained  from  the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate,  the 
Imperial  Government  has  prohibited  the  employment  of 
these  natives  on  the  Rand.  The  Association  is  no  longer 
able  to  obtain  natives  from  Rhodesia,  as  the  Rhodesian 
Government,  in  view  of  the  increasing  local  demand  for 
labour,  has  prohibited  recruiting  in  that  country  for  the 
Transvaal  mines.  On  the  other  hand,  recruiting  in 
Natal,  which  had  been  prohibited,  was  legalised  in 
January  1908. 

The  monopoly  of  recruiting  vested  in  the  Association 


32  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

has  been  severely  criticised,  and  it  has  been  represented 
that  the  supply  of  natives  for  the  mines  could  be  greatly 
increased  if  the  companies  were  at  liberty  to  recruit 
independently.  In  deference  to  these  views,  or  to  test  their 
accuracy,  the  Association  decided  in  1906  to  relax  the 
prohibition  against  separate  recruiting  by  its  members  ;  and 
the  various  companies  are  now  at  liberty  to  collect  natives 
on  their  own  account.  No  company,  however,  may  offer  a 
higher  wage  than  2s.  per  day  for  underground  and  \s.  Sd. 
per  day  for  surface  work  ;  and  all  natives  engaged  in  this 
way  have  to  be  registered  with  the  Association.  During 
1907  the  independent  recruiters  succeeded  in  collecting 
17,909  natives,  of  whom  11,799  were  obtained  in  Cape 
Colony.  The  Association  withdrew  some  of  its  agents  to 
avoid  competing  with  its  own  members  ;  but,  as  it  recruited 
only  4,055  natives  from  Cape  Colony  during  1906,  and 
5,201  during  1907,  it  would  seem  that  for  the  natives  of 
that  colony  the  independent  system  of  recruiting  was  the 
more  successful. 

In  addition  to  the  natives  recruited  by  the  Association 
and  the  companies,  many  natives  come  direct  to  the  Rand. 
In  1907  no  fewer  than  19,237  of  the  natives  described 
as  "  local  "  in  the  returns  of  the  Association  were  really 
labourers  who  had  thus  found  their  own  way  to  the  mines. 
Natives  from  the  more  progressive  districts  who  can  afford 
to  pay  their  fares  often  prefer  to  come  to  industrial 
centres  in  this  manner,  as  by  so  doing  they  avoid  entering 
into  contracts  beforehand  and  are  free  to  arrange  terms 
with  their  employers  on  the  spot.  This  practice,  which  is 
particularly  popular  with  some  of  the  Cape  Colony  natives, 
saves  the  employer  the  expense  of  recruiting  ;  and  in  the 
interests  of  both  parties  every  facility  should  be  given  to 
natives  to  seek  employment  in  this  way. 

The  total  number  of  natives  in  the  employment  of 
members  of  the  Association  (exclusive  of  the  Barberton 


I]  NATIVES  ON  THE  RAND  33 

district,  but  including  9,009  natives  employed  in  collieries) 
on  December  31,  1907,  was  106,290,  showing  an  increase  of 
25,059  during  the  year.  By  the  end  of  September  1908  the 
number  had  risen  to  no  fewer  than  136,180,  but  the  latter 
figure  includes  the  natives  employed  by  the  J.  B.  Robinson 
group  of  companies,  who  left  the  Association  in  1906,  but 
rejoined  it  in  January  1908.  This  group  at  the  date  of 
rejoining  had  9,580  natives  in  its  employ,  exclusive  of 
natives  engaged  by  contractors.  The  Barberton  members 
of  the  Association  were  employing  2,294  natives  at  the  end 
of  1907,  and  a  considerable  number  of  natives  are  working 
for  gold-mining  companies  which  have  not  joined  the 
Association. 

Although  the  gold-mining  companies  of  the  Transvaal 
have  failed  until  recently  to  recruit  natives  as  rapidly  as 
had  been  hoped,  the  increase  in  their  output  has  been 
enormous.  In  eleven  years  the  value  of  the  gold  which 
they  produce  annually  has  risen  from  ;^8,6o3,83i  in  1896  to 
the  astonishing  figure  of  ^^27,403, 738  (representing  6,451,384 
ounces)  in  1907.  The  labour  troubles  which  have  arisen 
have  been  the  natural  consequence  of  this  rapid  expansion, 
and  difficulties  of  this  kind  will  no  doubt  have  to  be  faced 
in  the  future.  But  the  energy  and  knowledge  which  are 
now  being  brought  to  bear  on  the  solution  of  this  question, 
and  the  attention  which  is  being  given  to  the  use  of 
labour-saving  appliances  augur  well  for  the  success  of 
the  mine-owners  in  obtaining  sufifiicient  labour  for  their 
purposes,  notwithstanding  the  repatriation  of  the  Chinese 
coolies. 

The  demand  for  labour  on  the  Rand  has  caused  some 
anxiety  on  the  gold  mines  of  Southern  Rhodesia.  For 
these  mines,  though  on  a  small  scale  as  compared  with  the 
gigantic  industry  on  the  Rand,  have  of  late  been  making 
rapid  progress.  In  1899  their  output  of  gold  was  only 
56,742  ounces,  but  in  1907  it  had  risen  to  612,053  ounces; 

3 


34  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

and  this  development  has  greatly  increased  the  need  of 
labour.     In  winter  the  supply  seems  to  be  fairly  satis- 
factory ;   but  during  the  months  when  the  natives  are 
cultivating  their  fields  and  reaping  their  crops,  even  the 
offer  of  higher  wages  often  fails  to  induce  them  to  leave 
their  kraals.    The  Chief  Native  Commissioner  of  Mata- 
beleland  reported  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1905-6 
8,955  natives  were  employed  in  mining,  and  that  the  number 
rose  during  the  year  to  10,763,  the  supply  of  labour  being 
in  excess  of  the  demand  during  the  months  of  April,  May, 
and  June,  but  falling  short  subsequently.    In  his  opinion, 
"  much  can  be  done  to  increase  the  supply,"  and  he  draws 
attention  to  the  fact  that  "  in  those  mines  where  operations 
have  been  continuous,  and  qualified  compound  managers 
are  employed,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  maintaining 
their  full  complement  of  boys."     In  consequence  of  the 
complaints  of  scarcity  of  labour,  the  Administrator  ap- 
pointed a  committee  during  that  year  to  investigate  the 
subject,  and  in  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of 
this  committee,  the  Rhodesian  Native  Labour  Bureau  was 
reconstituted,  and,  to   provide  it  with  funds,  employers 
were  required  to  pay  a  monthly  registration  fee  of  2s.  for 
every  native  labourer  over  the  age  of  fourteen  engaged  in 
any  form  of  mining  work.    The  natives  seem  to  have  been 
usually  engaged  by  monthly  contracts,  and  the  committee 
recommended  lengthening  the  term  of  employment  in 
order  to  distribute  labour  more  equally  throughout  the 
year.    They  also  advised  the  adoption  of  a  standard  scale 
of  rations  and  a  minimum  wage,  the  exemption  from  taxa- 
tion of  natives  who  had  been  in  dona  fide  and  continuous 
employment  for  twelve  months,  and  the  imposition  of  rent 
on  natives  living  outside  the  reserves  on  unalienated  lands 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company. 

The  wages  paid  on  the  Rhodesian  mines  appear  to  be 
considerably  lower  than  those  on  the  Rand.    The  Native 


l]  NATIVES  ON  GOLD  AND  OTHER  MINES  35 

Affairs  Commission  were  informed  by  Colonel  Grey,  the 
representative  of  the  Salisbury  Chamber  of  Mines,  that  the 
average  wage  might  be  taken  roughly  at  from  ^6s.  to  38^. 
a  month,  and  the  maximum  at  about  £^  los.  with  food. 
The  accommodation  for  natives  on  the  Rhodesian  mines, 
although  not  perfect,  has  been  improved,  and  attention  has 
been  given  to  sanitation,  diet,  and  medical  attendance.  By 
effecting  further  improvements  in  these  directions,  the  mine- 
owners  could  probably  do  much  to  increase  the  number 
and  efficiency  of  their  employees.  Recruiting  for  these 
mines  is  carried  on  by  private  agents  and  by  the  Rhodesian 
Native  Labour  Bureau.  The  Bureau,  as  a  responsible 
organisation  able  to  ensure  proper  treatment  of  its  recruits, 
is  well  supported  by  the  Government.  It  has  been  largely 
engaged  in  collecting  labour  in  North-Eastern  and  North- 
western Rhodesia,  and  apparently  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. Natives  from  the  former  district  usually  contract 
for  terms  of  twelve  months ;  those  from  the  latter  for  six 
months,  with  the  option  to  renew  their  contracts  for  three 
months  longer. 

Next  in  importance  among  the  industrial  employers  of 
natives  are  the  diamond  and  coal-mining  companies.  Dur- 
ing the  year  1906-7  the  average  number  of  coloured 
employees  on  the  diamond  mines  of  the  Transvaal  was 
7,697  ;  about  4,000  appear  to  be  engaged  in  diamond-mining 
in  the  Orange  River  Colony  ;  23,769  were  employed  on  an 
average  in  1906-7  by  the  De  Beers  Company  at  Kim- 
berley ;  and  a  comparatively  small  but  probably  increasing 
number  are  now  apparently  engaged  in  the  production 
of  diamonds  in  Rhodesia.  The  wages  paid  by  the 
diamond  mines  are  exceptionally  high.  At  Kimberley  the 
ordinary  rate  has  been  1 5^-.  a  week,  but  the  natives  have  often 
been  able  to  earn  from  20s.  to  25^-.  Owing  to  the  necessity 
for  guarding  against  theft,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the 
natives  from  obtaining  intoxicants,  the  De  Beers'  compound 


36  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 


system  is  of  an  extremely  stringent  kind.  The  natives  are 
confined  strictly  to  the  compound  enclosure,  and  are  sub- 
jected to  a  somewhat  rigorous  discipline.  But  Mr.  G.  W. 
Barnes,  the  Protector  of  Natives,  reports  that  "  they  are 
comfortably  housed,  and  everything  done  to  make  their 
lives  as  pleasant  as  possible."  Large  sums  have  been  ex- 
pended in  improving  the  compounds,  and  the  fact  that  these 
mines  have  little  difficulty  in  obtaining  labour  is  good 
evidence  of  the  satisfactory  treatment  of  their  employees.^ 
The  diamond-mining  companies  have  of  late  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  their  hands ;  and  this  to  some  extent 
accounts  for  the  large  increase  in  the  number  of  natives 
recruited  for  the  Rand. 

The  number  of  natives  employed  in  the  coal  mines  is  also 
very  considerable.  According  to  the  census  returns,  2,173 
natives  were  so  employed  in  Cape  Colony,  and  over  900  in 
the  Orange  River  Colony.  The  report  of  the  Transvaal 
Government  Mining  Engineer  for  1906-7  shows  that  10,387 
coloured  persons  were  employed  in  the  collieries  of  that 
colony  at  the  end  of  June  1907;  and  the  representative 
of  the  Natal  Mine  Managers'  Association  informed  the 
Native  Affairs  Commission  that  the  mines  included  in  that 
Association  were  employing  over  3,000  natives.  The  num- 
ber employed  in  the  Rhodesian  coal  mines  would  no  doubt 
be  comparatively  small.  The  average  monthly  wage  on 
the  Transvaal  coal  mines  in  1906-7  was  43 j.  2d.  In  Natal 
experienced  men  working  underground  earn  from  £2  to 
£/!if  a  month,  and  others  from  30J-.  to  50^.  per  month,  with 
food  and  lodging.  Considerable  improvements  are  stated 
to  have  been  made  both  in  the  diet  and  the  accom- 
modation provided  on  the  Natal  mines  ;  and  the  Natal 
Native  Affairs  Commission  specially  refers  to  "  the  splen- 

1  The^Kimberley  Compound  System  is  fully  described  in  the  volume 
edited  by  this  Committee,  entitled  "  The  Natives  of  South  Africa  "  (John 
Murray),  p.  139  et  seq. 


I] 


VARIOUS  EMPLOYMENTS 


37 


did  example  set  by  the  Newcastle  Colliery  in  providing 
decent  cottages  for  married  natives,  and  paying  them 
good  wages  "  as  an  instance  of  "  what  can  be  done  by 
studying  mutuality  of  interest."  On  the  Indwe  mines  in 
Cape  Colony  the  wage  has  been  about  2s.  a  day,  in 
addition  to  food  and  accommodation  ;  and  these  mines 
seem  to  have  been  well  supplied  with  labour.  By  providing 
land  for  occupation  by  their  employees  the  Indwe  Com- 
pany have  been  able  to  induce  many  of  its  more  efficient 
natives  to  settle  with  their  families  near  the  mines  and 
to  give  their  services  for  about  fifteen  days  in  each  month. 
With  proper  supervision  this  plan  has  great  advantages, 
and  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  whether  it  should  not  be 
adopted  more  widely.  This  company  has  also  made  the 
experiment  of  employing  female  labour,  apparently  with 
success. 


(d)  Other  Industrial  and  Commercial  and  Domestic 
Employments 

Many  natives  are  engaged  in  unskilled  work  on  the 
railways,  roads,  docks  and  other  public  works,  as  assistants 
in  stores,  and  in  many  other  occupations  under  private 
employers.  During  recent  years,  owing  to  the  great 
demand  for  labour,  they  have  often  been  earning  high 
wages.  A  few  illustrations  will  show  approximately  the 
usual  rates.  In  Cape  Town  the  dock  labourers  receive 
4^.  a  day  with  (^d.  an  hour  extra  for  overtime  ;  and  from 
4^.  to  5x  seems  to  be  the  usual  pay  for  an  ordinary  un- 
skilled labourer.  In  other  towns  from  2s.  to  3s.  a  day 
seems  to  be  about  the  usual  wage,  but  higher  rates  are 
frequently  paid,  and  some  of  the  experienced  dock  hands 
at  the  seaports  are  said  to  get  as  much  as  ys.  or  8^-.  a  day. 
Labourers  on  the  Cape  Railway,  who  sometimes  remain 
for  years,  receive  from  3^.  to  d,s.  6d.  a  day  and  are  provided 


38  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 


with  rough  accommodation  ;  those  on  the  Central  South 
African  Railways,  who  are  engaged  on  six  months'  con- 
tracts, receive  is.  Sd.  a  day  and  food,  and  "  boss-boys  "  or 
indunas  2s.  6d.  to  3^.  a  day  with  food.  Store  boys  in  towns 
can  earn  from  ^os.  to  £^  a  month,  with  food,  but  in 
country  districts  they  are  sometimes  paid  not  more  than 
IS.  a  day.  In  employments  which  involve  skilled  work  or 
the  discharge  of  responsible  duties  much  higher  remu- 
neration is  given.  In  the  Cape  postal  service,  for  instance, 
linesmen  receive  about  £80  a  year,  letter-carriers  from  £yo 
to  £100,  with  £s  a  year  for  overtime,  and  telegraph  mes- 
sengers from  £60  to  ;^'ioo. 

The  practice  of  employing  natives  and  coloured  people 
as  domestic  servants  is  a  fact  of  special  importance  in 
the  social  economy  of  South  Africa,  both  on  account  of 
the  close  relations  which  it  involves  between  the  two  races 
and  because  the  number  of  servants  is  exceedingly  large. 
The  census  returns  of  1904  showed  that  in  Cape  Colony, 
the  Transvaal,  and  the  Orange  River  Colony,  over  117,000 
natives  and  coloured  persons  were  employed  in  this  capacity, 
of  whom  about  40,000  were  males  and  77,000  females. 
Were  these  servants  carefully  trained  by  their  employers 
and  prepared  for  such  training  by  a  judicious  education, 
this  system  of  domestic  service  might  work  well  enough. 
In  that  case  its  effects  on  the  natives  might  be  as 
beneficial  as  they  are  undoubtedly  far-reaching.  But 
many  domestic  servants  have  had  no  such  training  or 
education,  and  their  employment  is  not  seldom  a 
source  of  mischief  both  to  themselves  and  to  the  families 
for  whom  they  work.  The  wages  paid  to  domestic 
servants  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Cooks  sometimes  earn  as  much  as  8^.  a  day,  but  in  Cape 
Town,  Pretoria,  and  Johannesburg  from  £2  los.  to  £4  a 
month,  with  food  and  lodging,  seems  to  be  the  usual  wage, 
and  in  some  districts  the  house-boys  only  receive  about 


I] 


NATIVE  ARTISANS 


39 


15J.  to  £1  and  the  girls  from  lOs.  to  15^.  a  month,  in 
addition  to  their  food  and  lodging. 

A  number  of  natives  are  now  learning  trades  at  various 
institutions,  and  many  who  have  been  thus  trained  are 
capable,  under  the  supervision  of  Europeans,  of  doing  good 
work.    A  case  was  mentioned  before  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission  of  a  native  saddler  who  was  making  ^250  a 
year,^  but  as  a  rule  the  earnings  of  native  artisans  seem  to 
range  from  about       to  ^8  a  month,  and  most  of  them  do 
not  possess  sufficient  capital  or  skill  to  work  successfully 
on  their  own  account.    Native  workmen  with  some  tech- 
nical skill  are  much  needed  in  South  Africa,  but  unfortu- 
nately they  are  often  regarded  with  jealousy  by  the  white 
artisans,  who  have  an  excessive  dread  of  their  competition. 
In  consequence  of  this  feeling  native  artisans  have  some- 
times had  difficulty  in  obtaining  employment.  Building 
contractors,  it  is  stated,  have  refused  to  engage  them  for 
skilled  work,  and  at  Bloemfontein  their  employment  in 
carpentry  or  building  in  connection  with  town  work  is 
forbidden  by  a  municipal  by-law.    At  present  the  demand 
for  the  services  of  the  native  artisan   among  his  own 
people  is  very  limited,  and  in  native  districts  like  Basuto- 
land  natives  who   have  received  an  industrial  training 
sometimes  carry  on  their  trades  merely  as  useful  adjuncts 
to    their   ordinary    agricultural    occupations.      But  the 
need   for   their   work    among   the   natives   is  steadily 
increasing,  and  in  time   it   should   provide  them  with 
ample  employment. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  municipal  authorities 
have  often  omitted  to  make  any  adequate  provision  for  the 
accommodation  and  supervision  of  the  natives  who  now 
flock  to  the  towns  in  search  of  work.  The  consequences  of 
this  neglect  have  been  deplorable  in  the  extreme.  It  has 
exposed  the  natives  to  temptations  which  they  are  wholly 
'  The  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5. — Q.  39,  550. 


40  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

unfitted  to  resist,  and  too  many  of  them  have  been  utterly 
demoralised  by  the  vices  and  licence  of  town  life.  How 
serious  these  evils  have  become  may  be  gathered  from  the 
reports  of  magistrates  and  other  officials,  who  have  watched 
with  growing  anxiety  the  far-reaching  effects  of  this  fatal 
contamination.  To  take  a  single  instance — Mr.  Stuart,  the 
First  Assistant-Magistrate  of  Durban,  draws  attention,  in 
his  report  for  1904,  to  the  growth  among  the  younger 
natives  of  a  new  spirit  of  lawlessness.  He  describes  them 
as  losing  their  good  manners,  showing  less  respect  to 
elders,  and  becoming  quarrelsome  and  churlish.  Im- 
morality, he  states,  is  increasing,  and  the  practice  of 
divorce,  formerly  unknown,  is  now  common.  This  de- 
moralisation he  traces  directly  to  the  lack  of  necessary 
safeguards  and  restrictions  in  the  relations  between  the 
two  races. 

The  need  for  proper  supervision  of  the  natives  in  the 
towns  is  the  greater  on  account  of  the  growing  number  of 
day  labourers  or  "togt"^  men,  who  by  their  large  earnings 
are  independent  of  settled  occupations.  At  some  of  the 
chief  towns  large  locations  for  natives  have  now  been  pro- 
vided. Thus  the  labourer  who  comes  to  Cape  Town  for 
employment  is  lodged  at  the  Harbour  Board  location  for 
Ss.  a  month,  if  he  works  at  the  dock  ;  or,  if  he  wishes  to 
work  in  the  town,  he  can  sleep  at  the  Maitland  location, 
where  cottages  can  be  obtained  for  £2  and  lean-to  huts  for 
10s.  a  month.  In  the  East  London  and  Kimberley  loca- 
tions small  pieces  of  land  are  let  to  the  natives  at  2s. 
a  month  and  loj-.  a  quarter  respectively,  on  which  they 
erect  their  huts.  In  the  new  Johannesburg  location  build- 
ings are  let  to  natives  at  a  reasonable  monthly  rent,  and  a 
cheap  train  service  has  been  established.  Considerable 
care  seems  to  have  been  taken  to  ensure  the  efficient 

'The  "togt"  labourer  in  Durban  has  to  take  out  a  monthly  licence, 
for  which  the  fee  is'i^s. 


0 


PROFESSIONAL  OCCUPATIONS 


41 


management  of  some  of  these  town  locations,  but  too 
many  of  the  locations  provided  by  municipalities  for  native 
labourers  appear  to  be  extremely  defective  both  as  regards 
management  and  accommodation,  and  even  in  so  important 
a  centre  as  Durban,  notwithstanding  the  erection  some 
years  ago  of  a  barracks  for  "  togt "  men,  the  housing  arrange- 
ments for  natives  seem  still  to  be  very  inadequate.  The 
Superintendent  of  Police  informed  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission  that  the  barracks  provided  accommodation 
only  for  about  2,500  out  of  the  7,500  "togt"  men  in  the 
town,  and  he  pointed  out  the  urgent  need  for  a  proper 
location.  The  merchants,  he  said,  did  "  not  require  any 
natives  in  the  town  proper  after  5  p.m.,  except  waiters. 
Stores  are  closed  at  five.  Natives  are  left  in  the  yard  till 
six  the  next  morning.  Between  nine  p.m.  and  six  a.m. 
they  are  shut  up  like  rats  in  a  hole,  and  cannot  get  out. 
That  is  what  I  complain  of.  Some  of  these  backyards 
are  not  fit  for  dogs,  let  alone  human  beings." 

(e)  Professional  Occupations 

A  number  of  natives  are  employed  as  policemen  and 
interpreters,  and  as  intermediate  and  subordinate  officials 
in  various  Government  departments  ;  many  have  become 
ministers  or  teachers,  and  there  are  a  few  native  editors 
of  newspapers  ;  but  there  is  little  opening  for  the  native 
in  other  professional  occupations,  and  at  present  only 
exceptional  natives  are  qualified  for  such  positions.  There 
will,  no  doubt,  in  time  be  an  increasing  demand  among  the 
natives  themselves  for  native  lawyers,  doctors,  and  nurses  ; 
but  hitherto  the  native  who  has  received  an  education 
much  above  the  average  is  too  apt  to  find  himself  unable 
to  turn  it  to  account,  and  is  naturally  disposed  to  resent 
the  false  position  in  which  he  is  thus  placed.  Hitherto  a 
large  proportion  of  the  better  educated  natives  have  been 


42  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap 

trained  by  the  various  missionary  societies  as  teachers, 
evangelists,  and  ministers,  and  many  of  them  are  doing 
good  and  responsible  work  in  these  capacities. 

The  status  of  natives  who  are  capable  of  filling  respon- 
sible positions  with  credit  is  a  matter  that  deserves  careful 
consideration.  It  is  neither  just  nor  expedient  to  subject 
men  of  this  class  to  laws  and  regulations  appropriate  only 
to  tribal  or  semi-civilised  natives,  and  exemptions  from 
such  legislation  might  well  be  granted  to  them  far  more 
freely  than  in  the  past.  It  is  also  worthy  of  consideration 
whether  further  openings  might  not  be  found  for  some  of 
the  most  capable  of  these  men  in  somewhat  more  respon- 
sible positions  than  they  at  present  generally  occup)'. 

§  2.  The  Labour  Question 

It  is  often  stated  that  the  demand  for  unskilled  labour 
in  South  Africa  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  supply,  and 
this  view  was  confirmed  by  the  reports  of  the  Transvaal 
Labour  Commission  of  1903  and  the  Native  Affairs  Com- 
mission of  1903-5.  The  former  Commission  estimated 
that  in  1903  there  were  181,929  labourers  at  work  in  the 
Transvaal,  whereas  the  Commissioners  considered  that 
there  was  then  employment  for  403,328,  and  that  196,000 
more  would  be  required  for  the  Witwatersrand  mines 
within  the  next  five  years.  The  Native  Affairs  Commis- 
sion stated  that  it  saw  "  every  reason  to  agree  with  the 
finding  of  the  Labour  Commission,"  and  estimated  that  at 
the  date  of  its  report  (1905)  no  fewer  than  782,000  labourers 
were  required  in  the  various  colonies,  although  not  more 
than  474,472  could  reasonably  be  expected  to  be  at  work 
at  any  one  time,  thus  leaving  an  enormous  deficiency  of 
307,528.  If  these  figures  could  be  relied  upon  as  even 
approximately  accurate,  the  economic  position  in  South 
Africa   would   undoubtedly   be   very  serious.     But  the 


l]  SUPPLY  OF  LABOUR  43 

estimates  made   by   these   Commissions   of  the  labour 
requirements  of  the  country  were  not  supported  by  ade- 
quate statistics,  and  were  based  to  a  large  extent  on 
conjectures.    The  Transvaal  Labour  Commission  pointed 
out   that   exact   returns  of  the  labour  needs   of  that 
colony   for  agricultural   purposes  were   not  obtainable, 
and   there  is   now   little  doubt    that  it   greatly  over- 
estimated the  prospective  demand  for  labour  on  the  mines. 
It  seems  probable  also  that  a  similar  over-estimate  was 
made  by  the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  for,  apart  from 
the  indefinite  character  of  much  of  the  evidence  on  which 
its  calculations  were  based,  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
Commissioners  attempted  to  deal  fully  with  two  important 
factors  in  the  question — the  possibilities  of  economising 
labour  and  of  increasing  its  efficiency.    The  conclusions  of 
this  Commission  with  regard  to  the  available  supply  of 
native  labour  are,  however,  of  remarkable  interest  for  the 
evidence  they  afford  of  the  growing  industry  of  the  natives. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  Commissioners,  about  50  per  cent, 
of  the  male  natives  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  forty, 
or  about  one-tenth  of  the  native  population,  might  on  an 
average  be  expected  to  be  at  work  outside  the  reserves 
and  locations  at  any  one  time  ;  and,  as  the  Bantu  popula- 
tion  of    British   South   Africa   (exclusive   of  labourers 
temporarily  resident   in   the   country)  may  be  roughly 
estimated  at  4,500,000,  it  would  appear  on  this  basis  that 
a  continuous  force  of  about  450,000  labourers  can  be  drawn 
from  the  Bantu  natives  alone.    To  this  number  must  be 
added  from  60,000  to  80,000  natives  from  Mozambique 
possibly  a  small  contingent  from  north  of  the  Zambesi, 
and  a  large  number  of  coloured  labourers  of  "  mixed  or 
other  "  races,  resident  in  the  various  colonies.    It  seems  not 
unreasonable  to  estimate  that  from  these  additional  sources 
at  least  1 50,000  labourers  should  be  constantly  obtainable, 
which  would  make  the  total  native  and  coloured  labour 


44  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

force  of  British  South  Africa  (exclusive  of  females)  about 
600,000,  or  approximately  equal  to  the  total  white  male 
population  of  the  country.  Whether  this  supply  of  labour 
is  sufficient,  or  could  be  made  sufficient,  for  the  unskilled 
work  of  the  country  it  is  probably  quite  impossible  to 
say ;  but  it  would  seem  that  a  considerable  number  of 
farmers  and  mining  companies  could  employ  more  natives 
than  they  can  at  present  obtain,  and  the  repatriation 
of  the  Chinese  coolies  will  undoubtedly  cause  a  large 
increase  in  the  demand  for  native  labour  on  the 
Rand. 

How,  then,  is  this  apparent  deficiency  of  labour  to  be 
met  ?  The  introduction  of  Asiatics  into  the  country  for 
this  purpose  is  now  out  of  the  question.  At  present  there 
seems  to  be  no  prospect  of  white  unskilled  labour  being 
employed  on  any  large  scale.  The  latter  alternative  was 
rejected  by  the  Transvaal  Labour  Commission  as  "con- 
demned by  past  and  present  experience  as  impracticable 
and  impossible";  and,  although  this  experience  is  of  a 
somewhat  limited  character,  there  is  no  doubt  that  there 
is  an  overwhelming  weight  of  colonial  opinion  against  the 
employment  of  white  men  for  unskilled  work.  This  is 
largely  due  to  a  racial  instinct  or  prejudice  against  the 
white  man  doing  the  same  work  as  the  Kafir,  but  the 
preference  of  employers  for  native  labour,  on  political  as 
well  as  financial  grounds,  is  probably  also  an  important 
factor  in  the  question.  Possibly  the  white  man  and  the 
Kafir  cannot  with  much  advantage  labour  side  by  side  at 
the  same  class  of  work.  But  it  is  far  from  clear  that  there 
are  no  forms  of  unskilled  work  in  which  white  men  might 
be  employed,  apart  from  natives,  with  satisfactory  results. 
The  two  dissenting  members  of  the  Transvaal  Labour 
Commission  were  of  opinion  "  that  in  many  ways  the 
supply  of  native  labour  can  be  supplemented  and  super- 
seded by  white  labour"  ;  and  this  view  is  strongly  supported 


l]  WHITE  UNSKILLED  LABOURERS  45 

by  the  majority  report  of  the  Transvaal  Mining  Industry 
Commission  (1907-8).  In  fact,  so  convinced  were  the 
Commissioners  who  signed  the  latter  report  that  the 
employment  of  white  labour  on  a  large  scale  is  both  a 
wise  and  practicable  policy,  that  they  recommended 
stringent  measures  to  promote  it.  In  their  opinion,  the 
employment  in  the  Transvaal  mines  of  natives  from 
districts  outside  the  limits  of  British  South  Africa  should 
be  restricted,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  entirely 
prohibited  ;  employers  should  only  be  allowed  to  engage 
natives  as  free  labourers  without  any  power  of  coercing 
them  ;  and  active  steps  should  be  taken  by  the  Government 
to  facilitate  and  encourage  the  employment  of  whites. 
Startling  as  the  report  of  the  Commission  is  in  its  contrast 
to  the  general  opinion  of  South  African  employers,  it 
cannot  be  dismissed  lightly.  How  far  white  unskilled 
labour  can  be  employed  with  advantage  has  still  to  be 
proved.  The  question  should  at  least  be  considered  with 
an  open  mind.  In  competing  with  the  native  the  white 
labourer  must  be  handicapped  by  his  higher  standard  of 
living  and  by  the  exorbitant  prices  which  he  often  has 
to  pay  for  his  food,  clothing,  and  lodging.  Nevertheless, 
in  forms  of  work  in  which  native  labour  involves  heavy 
expenses  of  supervision,  it  does  not  seem  impossible  that 
the  white  man  might  fully  earn  his  pay.  The  advocates 
of  white  labour  can  at  least  claim  that  the  experiment  has 
not  ye  ,  been  fairly  tried,  and  that  the  climatic  conditions 
of  many  parts  of  South  Africa  do  not  prohibit  it.  It 
seems  hardly  likely  that  native  labourers  will  be  super- 
seded by  whites  in  any  large  numbers,  at  any  rate  in  the 
immediate  future,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  white 
man's  excessive  prejudice  against  engaging  in  forms  of 
work  in  which  natives  are  employed  is  often  detrimental 
to  his  own  interests  and  to  the  progress  of  the  country. 
The   majority  of  the   Mining   Industry  Commissioners 


46  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

justly  point  out  that  "  if  the  white  man  is  barred  from 
competing  industrially  with  the  native,  but  must  make 
way  for  him  as  he  advances,  then  the  white  man's  destiny 
in  this  country  is  fixed  ;  he  is  doomed  to  failure." 

At  present  it  is  more  in  accord  with  public  sentiment  in 
South  Africa  to  look  to  increasing  the  supply  and  efficiency 
of  native  labour  as  the  practical  remedy  for  the  difficulties 
of  employers,  and  much  can  undoubtedly  be  done  in  both 
directions.  Stronger  incentives  to  industry  can  be  supplied 
by  raising  the  native's  standard  of  living.  Obstacles  to 
the  free  flow  of  labour  can  be  removed  by  improving 
travelling  facilities,  by  providing  proper  accommodation 
for  natives  on  the  way  to  their  employments,  and  by 
abolishing  taxes  or  charges  on  their  passes.  Batches  of 
native  labourers  are  now  conveyed  on  the  railways  at 
reduced  rates,  but  care  is  still  needed  to  ensure  that  they 
are  not  exposed  to  rough  or  inconsiderate  treatment  by 
the  railway  employees.  The  food  and  accommodation 
provided  by  many  employers  are  far  from  satisfactory,  and 
in  many  cases  higher  wages  might  well  be  paid,  for 
although  the  rates  of  pay  in  the  towns  and  at  industrial 
centres  are  nominally  high,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  native,  as  was  pointed  out  by  the  Native  Affairs  Com- 
mission, "  has  as  a  rule  to  pay  top  prices  for  his  purchases." 
The  general  treatment  of  native  labourers  by  their  employers 
might  also  often  be  much  more  considerate,  and,  when 
native  overseers  are  employed,  greater  care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  they  do  not  abuse  their  authority. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  consideration  whether  locations  could 
not  be  established  with  advantage  near  some  of  the  in- 
dustrial centres,  where  native  labourers  could  be  provided 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  land  to  induce  them  to  reside 
permanently  at  such  centres  with  their  families.  A  success- 
ful experiment  of  this  kind  made  by  the  Indvve  Com- 
pany has  already  been  referred  to,  and  it  would  often 


I] 


DUTIES  OF  GOVERNMENTS 


47 


be  in  the  interests  of  employers,  as  well  as  of  the 
natives,  if  some  of  the  more  efficient  and  industrious 
labourers  could  in  this  way  be  induced  to  live  within  easy 
reach  of  their  work.  The  establishment  of  locations  on 
these  lines  might  afford  a  useful  outlet  for  two  increasing 
classes  of  natives  for  whom  provision  will  have  to  be  made 
in  the  future :  the  young  men  who  in  some  congested 
districts  find  it  difficult  to  obtain  allotments  of  tribal 
land,  and  the  progressive  natives  who  want  better  oppor- 
tunities of  improving  their  position  than  are  generally  open 
to  them  under  the  rule  of  their  chiefs. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  that  the  work  of  collecting  native 
labour  should  be  undertaken  by  the  various  Governments. 
The  grave  objections  to  this  course  are  forcibly  stated 
by  Sir  Godfrey  Lagden  in  a  memorandum  on  Native 
Affairs  prepared  in  1901.  "Upon  the  subject  of  recruiting," 
he  writes,  "  I  have  already  given  expression  to  the  con- 
viction, and  desire  to  reiterate  it,  that  it  is,  both  in  the 
interests  of  justice  and  business,  undesirable  for  magis- 
trates or  other  officers  of  Government  to  be  employed  to 
recruit  labour.  The  labourers  should  feel  certain  that,  in 
case  of  dispute  or  grievance,  they  always  have  an  im- 
partial forum  to  appeal  to.  If  a  magistrate  becomes  a 
recruiting  agent,  his  individuality  is  prejudiced,  and  all 
sense  of  confidence  in  him  is  liable  to  be  lost,  not  from 
any  fault  of  his,  but  from  the  fact  that  he  is  placed  in  a 
false  position  towards  those  he  is  deputed  to  advise  and 
govern."  It  is,  however,  clearly  the  duty  of  the  Government 
to  exercise  a  vigilant  oversight  over  the  recruiting  and 
employment  of  natives,  and  to  protect  them  from  fraud 
and  ill-treatment.  The  licensing  of  labour-agents,  the 
supervision  of  contracts  by  magistrates  and  pass  officers, 
the  inspection  of  compounds  and  places  of  employment, 
the  enforcement  of  rules  of  hygiene,  the  prompt  redress  of 
any  legitimate   grievances,  the  establishment  of  labour 


48  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES  :  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 

bureaux  at  industrial  centres,  are  all  matters  that  call 
for,  and  in  a  large  degree  are  receiving,  the  careful 
attention  of  the  Governments.  And  magistrates  and  other 
Government  officials  can  and  do  render  valuable  assist- 
ance by  encouraging  natives  to  work,  and  by  giving 
them  information  as  to  opportunities  of  employment. 
In  such  w^ays  as  these  the  Governments  can  do  much 
to  lessen  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  labour ;  but  it  is 
hardly  within  their  province  to  collect  native  labourers  for 
private  employers,  and  it  is  essential  that  no  duties  should 
be  placed  upon  the  magistrates  which  might  prejudice  their 
position  in  the  eyes  of  the  natives. 

No  justification  exists  for  putting  undue  pressure  on  the 
natives,  by  taxation  or  otherwise,  to  seek  employment.  As 
the  Native  Affairs  Commission  stated  in  its  report,  "  Any 
measure  of  compulsion  is  to  be  deprecated,  not  only  as  un- 
just, but  as  economically  unsound."  The  Commissioners 
justly  included  in  this  condemnation  the  widely  advocated 
policy  of  applying  indirect  compulsion  by  means  of  taxa- 
tion. "  Indirect  compulsion,"  they  reported,  "  in  the  form  of 
a  labour  tax,  with  a  remission  to  workers,  has  been  recom- 
mended, but  the  suggestion  appears  to  the  Commission  to  be 
open  to  the  same  objections  as  apply  to  direct  compulsion  ; 
in  addition  to  which,  any  measure  of  taxation  of  this  kind 
to  be  really  effective  would  have  to  be  so  high  as  to  be 
impossible  of  application."  The  small  labour  tax  which 
was  imposed  under  the  Glen  Grey  Act  of  1894  has  now 
been  repealed,  and,  except  in  Rhodesia,^  ho  tax  of  this 
kind  appears  to  be  in  force  in  any  part  of  British  South 
Africa.    It  may,  therefore,  be  hoped  that  the  policy  of 

*  The  Rhodesian  Government  inserted  a  provision  in  their  agree- 
ment with  the  Fingoes  who  settled  in  Rhodesia,  that  if  they  failed  to 
give  three  months'  labour,  they  should  be  liable  to  a  tax  of  £1  per 
annum.  Apparently  there  had  been  no  occasion  to  enforce  this  pro- 
vision. (See  Mr.  H.  J.  Taylor's  evidence  before  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission.) 


i]  COMPULSORY  LABOUR  49 

imposing  taxation  for  labour  purposes  has  been  efifectually 
discredited.  Taxes  of  this  kind  are  calculated  to  irritate 
the  natives  and  inevitably  arouse  suspicion  as  to  the 
good  faith  of  the  Governments  :  and  nothing  is  more  likely 
to  make  labour  unpopular  than  attempts  to  taint  it  with 
any  suggestion  of  compulsion.  Notwithstanding  the 
protests  of  magistrates  and  chiefs,  and  the  recommendations 
of  Commissions  on  Native  Affairs,  one  form  of  com- 
pulsory labour  is  still  enforced  in  Natal.  The  Governor 
as  Supreme  Chief  has  power  to  call  out  natives  to  labour 
on  the  roads  or  public  works  of  the  Colony ;  and  the 
magistrates  are  instructed  to  require  the  chiefs  to  provide 
about  three  thousand  men  for  six  months  each  year  for  these 
purposes.  The  men  who  are  called  out  in  this  way 
receive  about  20s.  a  month,  with  rations  and  accommoda- 
tion, but  the  system  is  described  by  the  Natal  Commission 
on  Native  Affairs  as  "  intensely  unpopular,"  and,  in  view 
of  the  strong  recommendation  of  that  Commission  that 
some  satisfactory  substitute  should  be  devised,  it  is  greatly 
to  be  hoped  that  it  will  not  be  continued. 

Another  important  question  to  which  attention  was 
drawn  by  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  is  the 
desirability  of  encouraging  the  employment  of  native 
women  in  domestic  work.  The  Commission  was  of 
opinion  that  a  number  of  men  and  boys  might  thus 
be  released  for  other  and  more  suitable  occupations,  and 
that  the  employment  of  women  in  this  way  would  tend 
to  raise  the  standard  of  native  domestic  life.  Many  native 
women  are  already  engaged  in  laundries  and  as  servants, 
but  in  some  parts  men  and  boys  are  said  to  be  greatly 
preferred  in  the  latter  capacity.  The  reluctance  to  employ 
female  servants  is  no  doubt  mainly  due  to  the  girls  being 
insufficiently  trained  and  cared  for,  but,  with  proper  safe- 
guards, there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
be   employed   more   freely.    Most   native  women  have 

4 


50  OCCUPATIONS  OF  NATIVES:  LABOUR  QUESTION  [chap. 


abundant  employment  at  their  homes,  but  some  satisfactory 
form  of  work  is  much  needed  for  those  who  are  not  thus 
occupied. 

The  question  of  augmenting  the  supply  of  native  labour 
has  often  been  considered  without  due  regard  to  the 
possibility  of  increasing  its  efficiency.  Yet  it  seems  not 
improbable  that  it  is  in  the  latter  direction  that  relief  from 
the  present  labour  difficulties  can  most  profitably  be 
sought.  The  Natal  Commission  on  Native  Affairs  de- 
scribed the  state  of  native  labour  in  that  colony  as 
"  wasteful  and  uneconomic  in  the  extreme,"  and  urged  the 
introduction,  with  the  co-operation  of  chiefs  and  heads 
of  kraals,  of  "  a  system  of  apprenticeship  of  youths  to 
responsible  European  employers  under  proper  safeguards 
as  to  teaching,  food,  clothing,  housing,  etc."  Mr.  Maurice 
S.  Evans,  a  member  of  that  Commission,  points  out  that 
the  defective  training  of  native  labourers  and  servants  is 
largely  due  to  the  use  of  "  kitchen  Kafir  "  as  the  medium 
of  communication  between  them  and  their  employers.  In 
this  makeshift  for  a  common  language  "  it  is  impossible," 
writes  Mr.  Evans,^  "  for  the  employer  to  correctly  express 
his  meaning,  and  misconception  ensues— the  waste  of  time 
and  effort  from  this  source  alone  is  appalling."  There  is 
little  prospect  of  removing  this  difficulty  until  employers 
realise  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  teaching  the  natives 
English  and  giving  them  elementary  instruction.  At 
present  too  many  employers  are  content  to  express  their 
preference  for  uneducated  natives,  and  seem  indifferent 
to  any  efforts  either  to  improve  the  character  of  native 
education  or  to  extend  its  benefits.  So  long  as  these 
employers  are  satisfied  to  rely  on  untrained  employees,  to 
whom  they  can  only  give  the  simplest  instructions,  so  long 
will  the  potential  labour  resources  of  the  country  remain 

'  In  an  article  on  "  The  Native  Problem  in  Natal "  in  the  Empire 
Review  of  February  1907. 


i]  GROWING  INDUSTRY  OF  NATIVES  5 1 

imperfectly  utilised.  On  the  other  hand,  employers  who 
have  carefully  trained  their  natives  have  been  well  rewarded 
for  their  trouble  ;  and  it  is  only  by  means  of  such  training 
that  labour  can  be  economically  applied  and  progressive 
methods  of  agriculture  and  industry  introduced. 

The  persistence  of  conservative  methods  and  deeply 
rooted  prejudices  still  tends  to  perpetuate  the  characteristic 
inefficiency  of  native  labour,  but  new  wants  and  new 
standards  of  living  have  undoubtedly  aroused  a  healthy 
and  gi'owing  spirit  of  industry  among  the  natives.  "  The 
theory  that  the  South  African  natives  are  hopelessly 
indolent  may  be  dismissed  as  being  not  in  accordance 
with  the  facts,"  was  the  conclusion  at  which  the  Native 
Affairs  Commission  arrived  after  its  searching  inquiries, 
and  it  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  facts  and  figures  which 
have  been  summarised  in  this  chapter.  The  solution 
of  the  labour  question  is  being  gradually  effected  by 
economic  and  social  forces  more  potent  than  any  measures 
of  compulsion,  and  with  results  more  radical  and  far-reach- 
ing than  those  who  originally  set  them  in  motion  might 
have  cared  to  contemplate.  But  in  this  remarkable 
development  of  the  great  latent  powers  of  the  native 
peoples  of  South  Africa,  under  wise  and  sympathetic 
guidance,  lies  the  hope  of  their  future  progress  and  of 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  II 


LAND  TENURE 

§  I.  Introductory 

The  natives  are  primarily  agriculturists,  and  the  tribal 
system  under  which  most  of  them  still  live  is  so  interwoven 
with  the  possession  of  land  that  every  development  of  the 
land  question  is  of  peculiar  interest.  No  great  changes 
have  taken  place  in  this  respect  during  the  last  few  years, 
but  much  valuable  information  has  been  collected  by  the 
recent  Commissions,  and  recommendations  have  been  made 
as  to  the  holding  and  occupation  of  land  by  natives 
which  may  have  far-reaching  effects  on  their  prosperity. 
Before  considering  proposals  for  the  future,  however, 
it  seems  well  to  give  a  brief  summary  showing  how  the 
native  population  of  British  South  Africa  is  distributed 
over  the  land  at  the  present  time. 

§  2.  Cape  Colony 

The  policy  of  Cape  Colony  has  been  gradually  to  adapt 
communal  land  holding  to  the  changing  conditions.  The 
aim  has  been,  in  conjunction  with  a  just  administration 
of  tribal  affairs,  to  prepare  the  way  for  individual  tenure 
and  local  self-government.  The  lands  occupied  by  natives 
were  on  annexation  reserved  for  them,  and  over  a  million 
of  the  native  population  now  occupy  communally  lands 
which  have  been  thus  specially  set  aside.  These  lands, 
which  include  a  large  portion  of  the  Transkeian  Territories,* 

'  The  native  population  of  the  Territories  is  about  850,000. 
S2 


CHAP.  Ill     CAPE  COLONY:   PRIVATE  LOCATIONS 


53 


are,  for  the  most  part,  divided  into  wards  whose  limits  have 
been  fixed  as  far  as  possible  according  to  the  occupation  of 
the  various  tribes  when  the  land  was  originally  taken  over. 
Each  ward  is  under  the  control  of  a  headman,  who  allots, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  magistrate,  to  each  native  a 
plot  of  garden  land,  in  addition  to  his  site  for  occupation, 
retaining,  however,  a  large  portion  of  the  land  for  com- 
monage, over  which  the  natives  have  communal  rights 
of  grazing,  etc.  A  native  cannot  be  removed  from  his 
holding  without  the  approval  of  the  Chief  Magistrate  in 
the  Transkeian  Territories,  or  without  the  approval  of  the 
Government  in  the  Colony  proper.  No  lands  have  been 
reserved  during  the  last  few  years  for  communal  occupa- 
tion, although  applications  have  been  made  in  cases  where 
the  present  locations  are  overcrowded.^ 

There  are  about  40,000  natives  living  on  private  locations. 
For  these  private  locations  (some  1,300  in  number)  further 
regulations  were  provided  by  the  Native  Locations  Amend- 
ment Act  (No.  30  of  1899),^  which  enacts  that  the  owner  of 
any  land  on  which  a  private  location  is  established  must 
take  out  an  annual  licence  for  such  location.  A  private 
location  is  defined  by  section  2  of  the  Act  as  meaning 
"  any  number  of  huts  or  dwellings  on  any  private  property, 
occupied  by  one  or  more  native  male  adults,  such  occupants 
not  being  in  the  bond  fide  and  continuous  employment  of 
the  owner  or  occupier  of  such  land,  either  as  his  domestic 
servants  or  in  or  about  the  farming  operations,  trade,  busi- 
ness, or  handicraft,  by  him  carried  on  upon  such  land."  The 

*  Evidence  of  Mr.  E.  E.  Dower,  Secretary  for  Native  Affairs,  before 
the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5,  Report,  vol.  ii.  p.  5. 

^  This  Act  repealed  Act  No.  33  of  1892  and  sections  2,  3,  4,  and  6  of 
Act  No.  37  of  1884,  and  so  much  of  any  other  law  as  might  be  repugnant 
to  or  inconsistent  with  its  provisions.  It  does  not  apply  to  any  location 
under  Act  No.  5  of  1 899,  or  to  any  location  situate  within  any  municipality 
or  area  under  the  operation  of  the  Village  Management  Acts,  unless  a 
municipality  or  village  management  board  shall  apply  its  provisions  to 
any  such  location. 


54 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


owner  has  to  pay  on  every  such  annual  licence  the  sum 
of  per  annum  for  every  native  male  adult  (except  in 
respect  of  certain  persons  specially  exempted  by  section  1 1) 
and  the  hut  tax  of  lo^r.  per  annum.  No  licence  may 
authorise  more  than  40  male  adults  to  be  at  any  time  in 
occupation  of  a  private  location,  nor  may  any  licence  be 
issued  in  respect  of  natives,  other  than  those  mentioned  in 
section  11,  except  upon  the  certificate  of  the  Civil  Com- 
missioner that  the  consent  of  the  Divisional  Council  and 
the  Governor  to  the  issuing  of  such  licence  has  been 
obtained.  Amongst  the  persons  specially  exempted  by 
section  1 1  are  "  Any  native  male  adults  who  are  bond  fide 
required  for  the  due  working  of  any  private  property." 
This  important  exemption  has  proved  of  great  assistance 
to  farmers  who  require  an  increased  supply  of  labour  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  over  one  thousand  "  Labour 
Tenant  Locations  "  have  been  established,  and  appear  to 
give  universal  satisfaction.^  These  small  locations  generally 
consist  of  not  more  than  five  or  six  natives  and  their  wives 
and  children,  and  the  number  of  natives  "  bond  fide  re- 
quired "  is  decided  by  the  Inspector  of  Native  Locations.^ 
The  usual  arrangement  with  the  native  labour-tenant  is  for 
him  to  work  for  the  farmer  during  certain  periods  of  the 
year,  his  rent  being  determined  by  the  amount  of  such 
labour,  and  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  land  which 
he  is  allowed  to  cultivate  for  his  own  use.  In  some  cases 
the  farmer  places  certain  lands  at  the  disposal  of  the 
natives,  who  do  nothing  else  but  work  thereon,  and  then 
share  the  profits  with  him.  Private  locations  which 
simply  consist  of  land  farmed  out  to  natives,  and  which 

'  Mr.  S.  H.  Roberts,  Chief  Inspector  of  Native  Locations,  reported  that 
"the  introduction  of  section  13  (Labour  Tenant  Locations)  into  Act 
No.  30  of  1899  has  to  a  great  extent  decreased  the  difficulty  farmers 
formerly  had  in  obtaining  labour  for  the  cultivation  of  their  land.  .  .  .  " 
Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1904,  p.  45. 

'  Act  No.  30  of  1899,  section  13. 


ii]  CAPE  COLONY:  LABOUR  LOCATIONS  55 

may  be  termed  "  Squatters'  Locations,"  seem  to  be  un- 
satisfactory in  principle,  and  are  discouraged.  Exemption 
from  payment  of  licence  fees  is  granted  in  cases  where 
native  male  adults  jointly  occupy  any  private  property  as 
registered  owners,  or  who  jointly  have  a  bonA  fide  written 
lease,  but  the  rent  in  the  case  of  two  such  lessees  must 
be  £,<\Z  or  upwards  and  not  less  than  an  additional  £,12 
each  for  any  greater  number  of  lessees.^  The  occupation 
of  private  property  by  a  native  who  is  the  sole  registered 
owner,  or  who  is  the  sole  lessee  paying  a  rent  in  cash  of 
not  less  than  £-^6  per  annum  under  a  bond  fide  written 
lease,  does  not  constitute  a  private  location.^  Complaints 
are  made  that  bogus  agreements  are  entered  into  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  benefit  of  these  exemptions. 

The  owner  of  any  land  on  which  a  private  location  is 
established  has  to  keep  a  register  of  the  huts  and  dwellings, 
the  names  and  occupations  of  the  native  male  adults  and 
particulars  of  the  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats 
within  the  location.^ 

In  certain  areas  where  large  numbers  of  natives  are 
engaged  in  mining  or  any  public  or  private  works  the 
Governor  may  suspend  the  operation  of  the  ordinary 
Location  Acts  and  declare  a  district  to  be  a  proclaimed 
area  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  Native  Labour 
Locations  Act  (No.  5  of  1899).  Under  this  Act  a  register 
has  to  be  kept  of  the  number  of  huts  and  names  of  the 
natives  and  with  particulars  as  to  the  cattle.  Natives  have 
to  be  furnished  with  tickets,  and  unauthorised  persons  may 
be  ejected.  An  example  of  a  location  of  this  kind  is  given 
by  Mr.  G.  E.  Dugmore,  the  managing  director  of  the  Indwe 
Railway,  Collieries,  and  Land  Company,  Ltd.,  who  informed 
this  Committee  that  (in  1902)  "the  Indwe  Company  have 
between  200  and  300  families  settled  on  land  adjacent  to 
their  mines  ;  they  give  each  man  six  acres  of  land  to  culti- 
'  Act  No.  30  of  1899,  section  10.    '  Ibid,  section  9.    '  Ibid,  section  8. 


56 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


vate,  and  grazing  for  a  limited  number  of  live  stock,  for 
which  a  rent  of  £^  per  annum  is  paid.  They  sign  a  contract 
to  work  1 8  days  in  each  month  at  current  rate  of  wages 
(about  2s.  per  day).  This  answers  well  in  keeping  skilled 
native  labour  together  ;  in  actual  practice,  they  do  not  on 
an  average  work  more  than  1 5  days  a  month,  and  constant 
supervision  is  necessary  to  secure  even  so  much.  On  the 
whole,  the  system  works  well,  and  we  are  extending  it. 
Under  the  provisions  of  one  of  our  Acts  of  Parliament, 
the  Governor  may  proclaim  areas  contiguous  to  mines  as 
areas  within  which  intoxicating  liquor  shall  not  be  sold 
to  natives.  This  is  a  proclaimed  area,  and  all  canteens 
have  been  closed.  A  trifling  amount  of  smuggling  exists, 
but  we  have  no  trouble  among  the  1,500  natives  we  are 
now  employing.  I  strongly  advocate  toia/  prohibition 
to  natives."  In  May  1903  Mr.  Dugmore  again  wrote : 
"  On  1st  April  last  the  lease  of  one  of  our  farms  fell  in.  I 
had  51  allotments  surveyed,  and  within  a  month  all  were 
taken  up  and  more  are  being  applied  for.  This  makes 
the  fifth  farm  thus  utilised,  the  sixth  will  be  similarly 
dealt  with  on  ist  January  next,  when  present  lease  falls 
in,  and  other  farms  will  follow  as  required." 

Locations  on  Crown  and  private  land  in  the  Transkeian 
Territories  are  regulated  by  Proclamations,  which  in  the 
main  follow  the  Cape  legislation. 

Large  numbers  of  natives  working  in  towns  reside  in 
urban  locations,  established  within  municipal  areas  for 
residential  purposes.  It  is  also  provided  by  the 
Native  E.eserve  Locations  Act  (No.  40  of  1902)  and 
the  Native  Reserve  Locations  Amendment  Act  (No.  8 
of  1905)  that  the  Governor  may  by  proclamation  estab- 
lish native  locations  in  or  near  a  city,  and  may  prescribe 
and  define  the  limits  of  any  urban  district  in  which 
a  native  reserve  location  shall  have  been  established 
and  proclaim  such  urban  district  (excluding  the  area  of 


CAPE  COLONY:   TOWN  LOCATIONS 


57 


such  location)  to  be  an  area  within  which  it  shall  not  be 
lawful  for  any  native  to  reside,  with  the  exception  of 
(inter  alia)  a  native  in  bond  fide  employment  as  a  domestic 
or  farm  or  other  servant  and  housed  on  his  master's 
premises,  or  a  native  who  has  been  granted  special  per- 
mission to  reside  outside  the  location.  These  locations 
are  subject  to  stringent  sanitary  and  other  regulations  ;  but 
the  standard  of  comfort  is  often  low  and  the  accommodation 
inadequate.  Referring  to  the  locations  at  East  London, 
in  which  about  ii,ooo  natives  live,  Mr.  C.  A.  Lloyd,  the 
superintendent,  stated  in  his  evidence  before  the  Native 
Affairs  Commission  that  "  a  site  of  40  feet  by  40  feet,  upon 
which  one  hut  is  allowed  to  be  erected,  is  obtainable  in  the 
municipal  locations  of  East  London  on  payment  of  a 
monthly  fee  of  2s.,  which  covers  the  cost  of  water  and 
sanitary  expense  ;  an  additional  charge  of  4J.  is  made  in 
the  case  of  an  occupier  desiring  to  accommodate  lodgers."  ^ 
In  the  Ndabeni  Location  near  Capetown,  which  was  started 
in  1901,  the  rent  is  \os.  per  month  for  a  lean-to  hut 
and  £2.  a  month  for  a  Government  cottage  with  two 
rooms. 

Outside  areas  thus  set  apart  for  native  occupation,  there 
has  been  no  restriction  to  the  acquisition  of  land  by  natives 
in  the  open  market ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  natives 
have  purchased  land.  A  few  wealthy  ones  own  large 
amounts,  and  instances  are  mentioned  of  individual  natives 
owning  12,000  and  as  much  as  100,000  acres  freehold.^ 
"  Since  my  appointment  here,  a  little  over  three  years 
ago,"  ^  writes  Mr.  J.  H.  O'Connell,  the  Civil  Commissioner, 
Komgha,  in  his  report  for  the  year  1905,  "  natives  have  ac- 
quired by  purchase  title  to  some  16,500  acres  of  land  in  this 

'  Report,  vol.  v.  p.  52. 

'  Report  of  Commissioner  for  Native  Affairs  on  Acquisition  and 
Tenure  of  Land  by  Natives  in  the  Transvaal.    Appendix  7  E  (a). 
'  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1905,  p.  19. 


58 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


district."  Such  property  would  in  most  cases  be  actually 
occupied  by  groups  of  natives  under  communal  tenure. 
Sometimes  natives  have  combined  in  the  purchase  of 
freehold  land  and  remain  as  joint  owners. 

Endeavours  have  from  time  to  time  been  made  to 
encourage  the  development  of  the  principle  of  individual 
tenure  within  tribal  areas  where  the  native  has  progressed 
sufficiently  to  avail  himself  of  it  with  advantage.  Under 
the  Glen  Grey  Act,  1894,  the  most  recent  and  important 
attempt  in  this  direction,  an  allottee  of  land  pays  an  annual 
quit-rent  of  15^.  for  a  garden  allotment  of  four  morgen, 
and  3^.  for  every  additional  morgen  above  five,  and  may 
not  alienate  or  transfer  his  land  without  the  consent  of 
the  Governor,  or  mortgage  or  in  any  way  pledge  his 
interest  therein.^  The  Glen  Grey  Act,  1894,  has  been 
amended  by  the  Glen  Grey  Amendment  Acts  of  1899 
and  1905  ;^  and  the  provisions  relating  to  the  individual 
holding  of  land  by  natives  have  been  extended  by  pro- 
clamation to  the  Transkeian  districts  of  Butterworth, 
Nqamakwe,  Tsomo  and  Idutywa.  Recent  surveys 
have,  as  far  as  possible,  proceeded  on  the  principle  of 
allotting  to  each  native  the  land  occupied  by  him  at  the 
time  of  survey,  so  as  to  avoid  disturbing  him  in  his 
cultivation.  In  describing  the  methods  adopted  in  making 
the  survey  of  the  Butterworth  district,  Mr.  E.  Gilbert  Hall, 
one  of  the  Government  land  surveyors,  stated  in  his 
evidence  before  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  that' 
"  some  natives  are  found  cultivating  ground  of  not  more 

'  For  particulars  as  to  this  Act  and  the  previous  experiments  in 
individual  land-holding  see  "  The  Natives  of  South  Africa "  (John 
Murray),  p.       et  seq. 

*  Amongst  other  amendments,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  allotments 
are  not  to  be  liable  in  the  future  to  execution  for  debt,  and  that  a  life 
interest  is  reserved  to  the  wife  during  widowhood  on  the  death  of  the 
owner. 

3  Report,  vol.  ii.  p.  930. 


n]  INDIVIDUAL  TENURE  59 

than  a  morgen  and  a  half  in  extent,  others,  again,  are  found 
cultivating  ten  or  twelve  morgen.   They  vary  considerably, 
and  they  vary  in  accordance  with  the  quality  of  the  soil. 
We  find  that  the  natives  living  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kei 
River,  and  such-like  places,  where  the  soil  is  very  rich, 
cultivate  very  small  pieces  of  ground  indeed.  Our  difficulty 
as  a  Commission  was  to  persuade  these  men,  if  possible, 
to  give  up  these  small  pieces  and  move  on  to  the  flats, 
where  we  could  give  them  new  ground,  four  morgen  in 
extent ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  they  preferred  these 
little  pieces  of  ground.    The  result  was  that,  rather  than 
force  them  out,  we  had  to  survey  these  pieces  of  ground, 
however  small  they  were,  because  they  preferred  them. 
The  consequence  is  that  some  of  the  titles  now  being 
issued  are  for  ground  much  less  than  four  morgen  in  size ; 
but  I  think  the  average  of  lots  throughout  the  Butterworth 
district  works  out  at  about  four  morgen  or  slightly  over, 
because  there  are,  as  I  say,  a  large  number  in  excess  of 
the  four  morgen."     Practically  all  the  surveyed  plots  in 
the  Glen  Grey  district   have   been  taken  up,  and  the 
majority  of  these  allotments  consist  of  four  morgen,  or  a 
little  over  eight  acres,  but  some  are  larger,  and  most  of 
the  headmen  have  received  thirty  morgen.    The  natives 
have  only  in  a  very  few  cases  availed  themselves  of  the 
provision  which  enables  them  to  apply  for  the  grant  of 
a  building  lot  on  their  giving  proof  that  they  are  able  to 
erect  a  substantial  building  upon  the  lot  within  a  reason- 
able time.    They  seem  to  prefer  to  live  scattered  all  over 
the  commonage,  as  they  are  not  supposed  to  build  on  their 
garden  plots.    The  system  of  granting  individual  allot- 
ments is  working  well,  and  Mr.  C.  J.  Warner,  Resident 
Magistrate,  Nqamakwe,  states  that  ^  "  the  survey  of  this 
district  is  proceeding  apace,  and  the  natives,  who  are  very 
anxious  to  obtain  titles  to  their  allotments,  take  great 
'  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1904,  p.  123. 


6o  LAND  TENURE  [chap. 

interest  in  the  matter.  As  the  system  of  individual  tenure 
is  extended  and  better  understood,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
it  will  become  more  popular,  and  more  districts  will  apply 
to  come  under  it.  Natives  begin  to  recognise  the  fact  that 
in  districts  occupied  communally  land  questions  become 
more  acute  every  year,  while  applicants  for  arable  lands 
steadily  increase  in  numbers.  They  begin  to  see  that  a 
system  of  individual  land  tenure  founded  on  the  Glen  Grey 
Act  places  all  land  matters  on  a  sound  footing,  and 
definitely  secures  to  each  person  the  possession  of  his 
allotment."  Mr.  Warner  writes  further,  in  his  report  for 
the  year  1906:  ^  "The  detailed  survey  of  this  district  was 
completed  last  October.  A  great  many  individual  titles 
have  been  issued,  and  during  the  past  two  years  the 
natives  have  been  paying  the  costs  of  survey  of  their 
allotments."  In  the  district  of  Butterworth,  according  to 
the  report  of  Mr.  W.  T.  Brownlee,  the  Resident  Magistrate, 
the  principle  of  individual  tenure  has  been  applied  and 
has  given  every  satisfaction.^  Mr.  J.  P.  Gumming,  the 
Resident  Magistrate,  Idutywa,  reports :  ^  "  During  1905 
the  people  applied  that  the  survey  be  extended  to  this 
district.  During  1906  the  Government  authorised  the 
preliminary  survey  to  be  undertaken  ;  and  the  surveyor- 
in-charge  actually  began  the  work,  but  the  Government 
gave  orders  to  defer  the  survey.  It  is  a  matter  of  great 
regret  that  the  work,  having  once  been  begun,  should  be 
stopped.  With  natives  this  is  a  fatal  error  to  make.  It 
would  have  been  better  not  to  have  started  this  work  at 
all."  The  survey  of  this  district  was  proceeded  with  in 
1907.  Mr.  N.  O.  Thompson,  the  Resident  Magistrate, 
Kentani,  also  reports  :  *  "  The  system  of  individual  tenure 
of  land  has  not  yet  been  introduced,  but  I  trust  that  in 
due  course  this  survey  of  the  land  will  also  Be  extended 

'  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1906,  p.  75. 
*  Ibid.  1904,  p.  121.         '  Ibid.  1906,  p.  75.        *  Ibid. 


Il]  INDIVIDUAL  TENURE  6 1 

to  the  district."  The  introduction  of  the  system  is  also 
desired  in  the  Engcobo  District,  and  elsewhere. 

In  the  native  territories  (writes  Canon  H.  R.  Wood- 
rooffe)  titles  are  now  being  issued  in  certain  districts — 
those  which  may  be  called  conquered  districts.  And 
this  I  hold  to  be  a  wise  policy.  Those  districts  were 
split  up  into  locations,  each  of  which  was  in  charge 
of  a  headman.  Many  of  these  headmen  use  their 
power  for  their  own  profit,  and  are  guilty  of  continual 
acts  of  oppression.  The  granting  of  titles  will  abolish 
their  power,  or  very  materially  curtail  it.  And  of 
course  it  will  tend  towards  progress,  as  the  sense  of 
security  will  induce  many  both  to  build  and  to 
cultivate  more  carefully  than  hitherto.  I  think, 
however,  that  some  territories  or  districts  which  were 
voluntarily  placed  under  British  protection  ought  to 
be  treated  differently  from  those  which  I  call  con- 
quered districts.  The  wishes  of  the  people  should  be 
consulted  and  acted  upon.  And  if  the  issuing  of 
titles  is  not  generally  desired,  the  principle  of  justice 
would  be  infringed  were  it  made  compulsory.  I 
refer  to  Tembuland,  Pondoland,  and  the  Baca  country. 

Complaints  are  often  made  that  the  holding  of  allot- 
ments under  the  Glen  Grey  Act  confers  no  political 
franchise,  and  this  no  doubt  tends  in  some  cases  to  lessen 
the  desire  of  the  natives  for  these  allotments.  But  the 
establishment  of  local  councils  for  the  management  of  the 
affairs  of  each  locality,  which  is  one  of  the  new  departures 
made  possible  under  this  Act,  tends  to  educate  the  natives 
for  self-government,  and  encourages  their  sense  of  civic 
responsibility. 

§  3.  Natal 

In  Natal  the  conditions  of  native  land  tenure  are  very 
different  from  those  in  Cape  Colony ;  and  there  is  no 
evidence  of  a  definite  policy  for  the  development  of  the 
large  native  agricultural  population  by  improving  their 
methods  of  tenure  or  occupation. 


62 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


In  1864  about  2,20o,ocx)  acres  in  Natal  were  set  apart 
for  natives  and  the  Natal  Native  Trust  was  formed,  with 
powers  to  "  grant,  sell,  lease,  or  otherwise  dispose  of  the 
same  lands  as  they  should  deem  fit,  for  the  support,  advan- 
tage, or  well-being  "  of  the  natives  of  the  Colony  (not  only 
for  those  occupying  at  the  time).  There  are  also  127,211 
acres  in  Mission  Reserves.  The  Natal  Native  Trust,  which 
was  made  sole  trustee  for  these  grants  in  1903,^  has  power 
to  make  transfers  of  land  to  natives,  provided  the  purchase- 
money  is  used  for  improvementof  the  lands, or  forsimilar  pur- 
poses. The  Trust  has  also  power  to  charge  rent,  and  under 
its  regulations  a  rent  of  £1  lOs.  per  annum  is  payable  in 
respect  of  every  hut  or  dwelling  in  a  Mission  Reserve. 

Natives  own  67,957  acres  in  freehold  and  33,515  acres 
in  quit-rent.  They  have  also  purchased  215,516  acres  of 
Crown  lands  under  long  terms  of  payment.  In  some  cases 
the  purchasers  have  been  individual  natives,  in  others 
syndicates  of  natives ;  and  these  lands  have  frequently 
been  let  to  native  tenants.^ 

Excluding  those  natives  living  in  towns  or  on  Crown 
lands,  only  about  one-third  (265,603)  of  the  natives  of  Natal 
proper  live  on  the  lands  set  apart  for  them  in  the  Native 
Trust  or  in  the  Mission  Reserves.  The  other  two-thirds 
(421,080)  live  as  tenants  on  land  belonging  to  private  and 
often  absentee  white  owners,  and  are  liable  to  ejectment. 
On  the  occupied  farms  they  pay  rents  varying  from  £l 
to  £^  per  annum  ;  their  landlords  often  make  claims  on 
their  labour  when  it  suits  their  purposes,  the  rent  paid 
varying  according  to  the  amount  of  such  demands.  On 
the  unoccupied  farms  they  pay  rent,  but  are  usually 
free  to  dispose  of  their  labour.  Natives  living  on  Crown 
lands  pay  a  rent  of  £2  per  hut  per  annum. 

The  following  extracts  from  magisterial  reports  show  the 
■  Act  No.  49  of  1903. 

*  The  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5,  Report,  vol.  i.  p.  20. 


II]  NATAL:  CROWDED  LOCATIONS  63 

difficulties  which  have  been  growing  up  round  the  present 
land  system  for  many  years. 

Mr.  J.  J.  Field,  the  Magistrate  for  the  Mapumulo 
Division,  reported  for  the  year  1898^ 

With  the  exception  of  some  lands  which  have  been 
set  apart  and  ceded  to  trustees  in  trust  for  foreign 
missions,  the  division  consists  of  location  lands,  and  is 
inhabited  almost  entirely  by  natives,  the  only  Europeans 
being  a  few  storekeepers  and  missionaries,  and  others 
connected  with  mission  work.  The  area  of  the  division 
is  officially  given  as  390  square  miles.  The  native 
population  is  nearly  35,000  souls,  the  division  being 
the  most  thickly  populated  in  the  Colony,  there  being 
2r5  huts  and  89  souls  to  the  square  mile,  Indwedwe 
being  next,  with  a  population  of  about  60  souls 
to  the  square  mile.  At  present  there  appears  to  be 
quite  sufficient  land  for  the  wants  of  the  natives. 
Natives  build  their  kraals  and  cultivate  their  gardens 
where  it  best  suits  their  liking  ;  and  I  fear  that  fact, 
coupled  with  their  rapid  increase,  and  owing  to  the 
wasteful  manner  in  which  they  cultivate  the  land,  that 
in  the  near  future  the  location  lands  here  will  be  found 
to  be  quite  inadequate  for  the  requirements  of  the  popu- 
lation. If  some  official  supervision  could  be  exercised 
over  the  locations,  and  the  natives  gradually  instructed 
to  utilise  the  land  to  a  greater  extent  than  they  do,  and 
their  kraals  could  be  grouped  together  more  than  is 
now  the  case,  the  present  condition  of  affairs  might 
last  for  many  years  to  come. 

Mr.  F.  E.  Foxon,  the  Magistrate  for  the  Ixopo  Division, 
reported  for  the  year  1905  2 : 

The  natives  are  well  off  for  food,  but,  owing  to  their 
constantly  being  ejected  by  Europeans  who  require 
the  use  of  the  private  farms,  and  the  Crown  lands  being 
purchased  by  Europeans,  who  often  eject  all  the 
native  tenants,  etc.,  considerable  discontent  does  exist 
amongst  many  tribes. 

»  Natal  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1898,  B  3.       ^  Ibid  1905,  p.  i. 


64 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


Mr,  J.  L.  Knight,  the  Magistrate  for  the  Alexandra 
Division,  reported  for  the  year  1905  ^ : 

The  land  question  is  becoming  a  very  serious  matter. 
Crown  lands  are  gradually  being  sold,  and  the  new 
landlords  are  making  the  terms  of  occupation  more 
and  more  stringent.  When  natives  are  unable  to  meet 
these  their  only  refuges  are  the  locations,  and  these  are 
becoming  so  congested  as  to  have  almost  reached  their 
limit,  at  any  rate  under  the  present  system. 

The  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission  (1906-7)  strongly 
condemned  the  conditions  that  have  been  allowed  to  grow 
up  in  this  way.  Not  only  have  strained  relations  arisen 
between  tenant  and  landlord  owing  to  the  high  rents  that 
are  exacted,  but  the  chasm  between  the  races  has  been 
broadening  for  years.  The  attitude  of  the  natives  is  de- 
scribed as  being  one  of  distance  and  distrust.  They  feel  as 
if  the  hand  of  the  Government  were  against  them.  Their 
ability  to  meet  the  increasing  obligations  has  been  lessened 
by  the  growing  neglect  of  proper  cultivation,  and  they  take 
their  ideas  of  the  protection  of  Government  from  the  pro- 
cedure to  enforce  the  obligations.  The  policy  has  been  to 
reduce  the  size  of  the  tribes  and  curtail  the  power  of  the 
chiefs.  While  the  collective  tribal  aims  of  former  times 
now  find  no  outlet,  individual  aspirations  are  expected  of 
them  in  the  direction  of  personal  effort  and  satisfaction. 

According  to  the  terms  of  the  annexation  of  Zululand 

and  Amatongaland  to  Natal  in  1897,  the  existing  communal 

land  system  was  to  remain  unaltered  for  five  years,  and 

then  a  Commission  was  to  be  appointed  for  the  purpose 

of  delimiting  sufficient  land  reserves  in  the  Province 

of  Zululand  for  native  locations.    A  joint  Imperial  and 

Colonial  Commission  (The  Zululand  Lands  Delimitation 

Commission)  was  accordingly  appointed  in  1902,  and  issued 

its  report  -  in  1904,  setting  out  the  lands  to  be  reserved 

•  Natal  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1905,  p-  13- 

'  Apparently,  this  report  has  not  yet  been  carried  into  effect. 


n] 


NATAL  AND  ZULULAND 


65 


for  native  occupation  and  showing  the  parts  of  the  country 
to  be  thrown  open  to  European  occupation.  The  Com- 
missioners state  that  "there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
effect  of  the  delimitation  will  not  be  realised  and  be  brought 
home  to  the  natives  until  European  occupation  is  an 
accomplished  fact ;  but,  in  our  opinion,  no  trouble  need 
ensue,  provided  the  natives  are  treated  with  consideration 
and  justice."  It  would  seem  to  be  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  ample  provision  of  land  should  be  made  for  the 
overflow  of  natives  from  Natal  as  well  as  for  the  native 
population  of  Zululand.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Natal  Com- 
mission on  Native  Affairs  the  salvation  of  the  Colony  of 
Natal  depends  on  relieving  the  congestion  on  the  private 
lands  by  finding  places  for  some  of  the  population  on 
reserves  formed  in  Zululand. 

In  Natal  and  Zululand  the  struggle  for  the  land  is  the 
struggle  for  life,  and  the  future  of  the  agricultural  natives 
depends  upon  a  clear  opening  being  made  for  their  develop- 
ment. A  suggested  agency  for  improvement  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  communal  settlements  in  locations  controlled 
by  village  councils.  A  form  of  self-government,  and  the 
issue  of  conditional  titles  to  secure  fixity  of  tenure  and 
beneficial  occupation  in  such  communities,  are  advocated  as 
important  steps  in  gradually  detribalising  the  natives.  The 
locations  in  Natal  may,  under  better  supervision,  be  made 
to  carry  more  population.  Little  effort  certainly  has  been 
made  in  the  past  in  this  direction.^  The  tenants  themselves 
may  be  led  with  care  to  leave  their  wasteful  pastoral  habits 
and  make  better  use  of  the  land  under  improving  methods 
of  agriculture  ;  some  may  be  encouraged  to  form  a  class  of 
farm  labourers,  instead  of  depending  on  inferior  systems  of 
tenancy.     A  general  policy  is  advocated  of  limiting  squat- 

'  The  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1906-7,  reported  that  the 
full  and  economical  occupation  of  these  locations  had  been  glaringly 
neglected.    Report,  p.  8. 

5 


66 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


ters  to  the  requirements  of  labour  on  the  farms  and  of 
drafting  ejected  farm  tenants,  of  whom  there  is  said  to  be 
an  increasing  number  each  year,  to  Zululand  or  in  one  of 
the  ways  suggested  above. 

§  4.  The  Transvaal 

In  this  Colony  2,120  square  miles  of  land  have  been  set 
aside  as  Government  locations  for  natives.  They  make  no 
payments  for  rent,  and  enjoy  common  rights  in  regard  to 
water,  wood,  and  grazing.  The  boundaries  of  many  of 
these  locations,  which  are  occupied,  it  is  estimated,  by 
123,309  natives,  are  not  exactly  defined,  and  many  tribes 
claim  that  promised  grants  of  locations  have  not  been 
made.  A  Commission  was  appointed  in  the  year  1905  to 
inquire  into  these  matters,  and  it  is  hoped  that  its  inquiries 
will  result  in  a  satisfactory  provision  of  land  being  made 
for  the  natives.^ 

Natives  own  853  square  miles  of  land,  nearly  all  of 
which  has  been  purchased  by  tribal  subscription  and  is 
occupied  communally.  Most  of  this  land  is  situate  in  the 
Central  and  Western  Transvaal.  It  had  become  the 
practice  in  the  Transvaal  to  refuse  the  transfer  of  land  to 
a  native,  and  the  Government  nominated  a  trustee,  in 
whose  name  such  land  could  be  registered.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  registration  was  effected  in  the  names 
of  unofficial  Europeans  or  missionaries.  It  has  recently 
been  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Transvaal  (in 
the  case  of  Tsewu  v.  Registrar  of  Deeds'^)  that  an  aboriginal 
native  of  South  Africa  is  entitled  to  claim  transfer  in  the 
Deeds  Office  of  land  of  which  he  is  the  owner. 

About  one  half  (438,000)  of  the  natives  permanently 
resident  in  the  Transvaal  live  on  farms  owned  by  Euro- 

'  Transvaal  Native  Affairs  Department  Annual  Reports,  1904-5,  B  17, 
and  1905-6,  A  24. 
-  1905  ;  T.S.  130. 


ll]  TRANSVAAL  :  FARMS  AND  CROWN  LANDS  67 


peans  and  companies.^     These  natives  either  work  unpaid 
for  the  owners  (being  allowed  in  return  to  squat  on  the 
land,  with  a  plot  of  land  for  their  own  cultivation,  which 
the  farmer  often  ploughs  and  sows  for  them)  or  they  pay  a 
yearly  rent  of  from        to  ^^5.    Many  of  these  farms  are 
more  or  less  uncultivated, and  are  either  situated  in  unhealthy 
areas,  where  settlement  by  Europeans  is  almost  impossible, 
or  are  owned  by  land  companies  and  others,  who  hold 
them  for  the  sake  of  their  prospective  value  for  develop- 
ment for  mining  and  other  purposes,  and  in  the  meantime 
either  receive  the  benefit  of  the  natives'  work  or  the  rents 
paid  by  them.     This  system  of  "  farming  natives "  has 
become   a  far-reaching   evil.     The   usual  arrangement 
between  the  bond  fide  farmer  and  the  natives  whom  he 
requires  for  the  working  of  his  farm  seems  to  have  worked 
fairly  well  in  the  past.    The  law  forbidding  the  settlement 
of  more  than  five  families  on  any  one  farm  without  the 
consent  of  the  Government  has   been  disregarded,  and 
there  are  many  communities  of  natives  farming  unauthor- 
ised locations  on  private  land.    There  are  also  a  large 
number  of  natives,  estimated  at  180,427,  living  as  squatters 
on  open  Crown  lands,  which  were  formerly  their  property, 
and  for  whom  no  definite  locations  have  been  laid  out. 
These  natives,  from  whom  a  rent  of  £1  per  annum  per 
cultivator  was  demanded  for  the  first  time  in  1904,  enjoy 
free  water  and  grazing  rights.    In  his  annual  report  for 
the  year  1905-6,  Mr.  W.  A.  King,  the  Sub-Native  Com- 
missioner, Potgietersrust,  states : 

The  collection  of  Crown  rents  must  be  considered 
satisfactory  in  view  of  the  enormous  difficulties 
encountered  by  the  collector  in  these  parts,  where  the 
majority  of  the  Crown  lands  are  still  unsurveyed,  and 
in  most  cases  difficult  of  access.^ 

'  The  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5,  Report,  vol.  i.  p.  23. 

'  Transvaal  Native  Affairs  Department  Annual  Report,  1905-6,  B48. 


68 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


Locations  have  been  established  in  many  places  for 
natives  working  in  towns  or  mines.  In  the  year  1906  the 
native  location  in  Johannesburg  was  removed  by  the  Town 
Council  to  the  outskirts  of  the  municipality.  In  this  new 
location  native  tenants  are  able  to  acquire  individual 
holdings  under  leases  extending  over  a  period  of  33  years. 
Plots  of  land  are  let  to  natives  at  a  small  rental  for  them 
to  build  houses  on.  Buildings  erected  by  the  municipality 
are  let  at  a  reasonable  monthly  rental.  Sir  Godfrey 
Lagden  reported  as  to  this  location  as  follows :  "  I  rejoice 
to  think  that  the  new  native  location  at  Klipspruit,  near 
Johannesburg,  promises  to  be  a  model.  The  municipality 
has  spared  neither  efforts  nor  expense  to  make  it  so."  It 
is  hoped  that  similar  locations,  which  should  attract  a  good 
class  of  natives,  may  be  formed  near  other  towns. 

§  5.  Swaziland 

This  territory  has  been  placed  recently  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  High  Commissioner,  and  portions  of  the 
country  have  been  reserved  exclusively  for  the  use  and 
occupation  of  the  natives. 

§  6.  Orange  River  Colony 

In  tJie  Orange  River  Colony  there  are  two  reserves  at 
Witzies  Hoek  and  Moroka,  occupied  on  communal  tenure 
by  17,000  natives.  When  Paulus  Mopeli,  a  Mosuto  chief, 
desired  in  1867  to  come  under  the  Orange  Free  State 
Government,  an  ordinance  was  passed  defining  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  tribe  should  occupy  his  location 
at  Witzies  Hoek.  The  land  was  vested  in  the  Govern- 
ment ;  no  power  to  alienate  was  granted  to  the  natives, 
and  no  rent  imposed.  A  Commandant  was  appointed, 
who  allotted  the   land  in  the  location,  which  became 


ORANGE  RIVER  COLONY 


69 


practically  a  location  under  a  magistrate,  with  the  chief 
as  his  medium  of  authority.  The  location  remains  as  at 
first  beaconed  ofT,  with  the  exception  of  a  piece  of  land 
granted  to  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church.  On  the  death  of 
Paulus  Mopeli  further  regulations  were  made  in  1898.  In 
the  year  1884  the  territory  of  Sepinari  Moroka  was  an- 
nexed by  President  Brand,  who  guaranteed  existing 
rights.  Before  annexation  the  chief  had  agreed  to  grant 
separate  titles  to  members  of  his  family  and  others,  in- 
cluding a  few  whites.  The  Government  gave  effect  to 
these  arrangements,  the  rights  of  the  Barolongs  then 
squatting  on  these  lands  being  respected.  To  protect  the 
natives  from  parting  with  their  rights,  the  Volksraad 
resolved  shortly  afterwards  that  these  lands  could  only  be 
sold  with  the  approval  of  the  Volksraad,  a  pre-emptive 
right  of  purchase  being  reserved  by  the  Government,  and 
that  alienation  should  not  be  allowed  for  fifteen  years. 
A  large  strip  of  this  country  has,  however,  passed  into 
private  hands,  and  the  remainder  is  now  Government 
property.  Most  of  the  latter  portion  has  been  set  apart 
as  locations,  which  natives  occupy  under  communal  tenure, 
and  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  would  probably  be  required 
to  remove  them.  The  resident  magistrate  controls  the 
locations,  but  there  is  no  paramount  chief,  and  the  allotment 
of  land  appears  to  be  arranged  by  each  separate  kraal. 

Natives  are  forbidden  to  purchase  or  lease  land  else- 
where in  the  Orange  River  Colony.  The  great  mass  of 
the  native  population  live  in  small  groups  on  private 
farms,  and  195,494  were  so  distributed  at  the  date  of  the 
Native  Affairs  Commission  Report.  Not  more  than  five 
families  of  natives  ^  are  permitted  on  one  farm,  unless 

'Law  No.  4  of  1895.  Single  natives  who  are  hired  by  the  owner, 
lessee,  or  white  occupier,  and  native  families  engaged  for  temporary 
work  such  as  dam-making,  well-digging,  etc.,  do  not  come  within  this 
restriction. 


70  LAND  TENURE  [chap. 

special  permission  is  granted  by  the  landrost  of  the 
district ;  but  in  any  case  the  number  may  not  exceed 
fifteen  families,  and  for  each  family  above  ten  the 
owner  has  to  pay  a  tax  of  per  annum.  Only  two 
families  of  natives  are  allowed  to  be  kept  on  farms  not 
occupied  by  a  white  person.  The  landrost  has  to  keep  a 
register  of  the  permits  granted  by  him,  and  the  reasons 
in  each  case. 

Municipalities  and  village  management  boards  have 
powers  conferred  on  them  for  establishing  locations  within 
their  boundaries  for  the  residence  of  coloured  people.  A 
large  location  has  been  established  at  Bloemfontein  for 
natives  working  in  the  town.  This  location,  in  which  over 
18,000  natives  reside,  is  controlled  by  the  municipality. 
The  regulations  forbid  any  natives  living  there  without  a 
permit,  but  it  has  been  difficult  to  exclude  trespassers. 
Plots  of  land,  measuring  50  feet  by  50  feet,  are  granted  to 
the  natives  for  them  to  build  houses  on.  A  few  houses 
have  been  built  at  a  cost  of  from  ^$^^250  to  £2,00,  but  most 
of  them  are  constructed  of  raw  brick  and  straw,  with  an 
iron  roof,  at  a  'cost  of  £g  to  £12,  and  usually  consist 
of  only  two  rooms.  Nearly  all  the  natives  at  Bloemfontein, 
with  the  exception  of  those  for  whom  accommodation  is 
provided  by  employers  on  their  premises,  reside  in  this 
location. 

§  7.  The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate 

\r\  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  127,630  square  miles  of 
land  are  set  aside  for  the  native  population,  and  are  held 
communally.  In  good  seasons  the  natives  grow  more  grain 
than  they  require  for  themselves,  and  are  able  to  sell  the 
surplus  ;  but  the  land  is,  for  the  most  part,  waterless  and 
unproductive.  It  only  carries  a  population  of  78  to  the 
square  mile,  and  in  bad  seasons  grain  has  ^to  be  bought. 


ii]  BASUTOLAND :  RHODESIA  71 

Land  for  personal  occupation  is  allotted  by  the  chiefs, 
and  the  tribe  has  common  grazing  rights,  but  no  green 
wood  is  allowed  to  be  cut.  A  few  farms  are  owned 
by  natives. 


§  8.  BASUTOLAND 

In  Basutoland  the  whole  of  the  land  is  reserved  for  the 
natives,  who  occupy  it  under  tribal  tenure,  grazing  being  in 
common,  and  the  allotment  of  arable  plots  resting  with  the 
native  chiefs.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  available  arable  land 
is  under  cultivation.  The  purchase  of  land  by  whites 
within  this  territory  is  not  permitted,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
Basutoland  will  continue  to  be  a  country  reserved  for 
native  occupation. 

§  9.  Southern  Rhodesia 

In  Southern  Rhodesia  38,871  square  miles  of  land  are  set 
aside  for  native  reserves.  The  natives  thereon,  numbering 
264,618,  pay  poll-tax  but  no  rent,  and  enjoy  water,  wood, 
and  grazing  rights  in  common.  The  garden  plots  in  these 
reserves  are  allotted  by  the  native  chiefs.  Large  numbers 
of  natives,  estimated  at  151,503,  live  on  unreserved  and 
unalienated  lands  of  the  Chartered  Company,  and  are  liable 
to  be  removed  to  reserves  without  compensation  or  to  be 
charged  rent.  About  62,727  natives  live  in  private  loca- 
tions, which  have  been  established  on  farms  under  a  Procla- 
mation of  October  14,  1896,  and  they  usually  pay  a  yearly 
rent  of  £\  per  hut  in  money  or  labour.  Tenancy  agree- 
ments between  landlord  and  tenant  are  common.  These 
agreements  are  made  with  the  approval  of  the  Native 
Commissioner  and  registered,  the  terms  being  explained  to 
the  native.  The  usual  rent  is  £\  per  hut  per  annum,  but 
sometimes  there  is  a  labour  agreement  for  three  months' 


72  LAND  TENURE  [cHAP. 

work.  The  native  appears,  however,  to  prefer  to  pay  rent. 
In  his  report  for  the  year  1906-7,  the  Chief  Native  Com- 
missioner, Matabeleland,  states  :  ^  "  Agreements  between 
owners  of  farms  and  natives  occupying  lands  thereon  are 
becoming  more  general,  but  in  many  instances  natives 
prefer  moving  on  to  the  reserves  to  binding  themselves  to 
any  definite  contract.  In  a  few  instances  the  Matabele 
have  acquired  plots  of  land  from  Europeans,  and  inquiries 
have  elicited  the  fact  that  the  tendency  in  this  direction  is 
likely  to  increase.  Five  Fingoes  obtained  final  title  to  their 
allotments,  pending  the  completion  of  the  survey  thereof 
These  titles  are  modelled  upon  the  provisions  of  the  '  Glen 
Grey  Act.'" 

§  10.  Summary 

It  would  seem  that  the  communal  system  of  land  tenure 
will  for  some  considerable  time  be  the  one  best  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  the  great  mass  of  the  native 
population.  The  native  is  accustomed  to  its  restraints, 
and  no  sudden  breaking  down  of  it  should  be  attempted. 
At  the  present  time  about  2,500,000  natives,  more  than 
one  half  of  the  entire  native  population  of  British  South 
Africa,  occupy  communally  220,470  square  miles  of  land,^ 
which  have  been  reserved  for  them.  It  appears,  however, 
that  the  parcelling  out  of  the  land  by  the  headmen  and 
chiefs  is  not  always  satisfactory.  There  is  often  no  proper 
system  of  control,  and  disputes  about  land  are  frequent. 
The  cultivation  of  the  land  does  not,  moreover,  produce  the 
best  results,  and  land  is  often  abandoned  after  a  few  years 
and  fresh  land  cultivated.  Mr.  D.  Strachan  stated  before 
the  Native  Affairs  Commission  that  if  the  natives  in  the 

'  British  South  Africa  Company's  Report,  1906-7,  p.  39. 

'  127,630  square  miles  of  this  land  are  situated  in  the  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate,  where  the  land  is,  as  has  been  seen,  for  the  most  part,  only 
capable  of  supporting  a  sparse  population. 


II]  WASTEFUL  METHODS  73 

Transkei  were  allowed  to  go  on  in  their  present  wasteful 
way  in  the  handling  of  land,  with  want  of  method  and  want 
of  economy,  about  ten  years  would  see  the  end  of  it,  and 
the  question  would  become  very  difficult  to  tackle. 
Mr.  F.  Kuys,  Resident  Magistrate,  Taungs,  reports  for  the 
year  1906  ^ : 

It  seems  a  great  pity  that  the  natives  make  hardly 
any  use  (from  an  agricultural  point  of  view)  of  the 
Hartz  and  Dry  Hartz  valleys,  which  are  most  fertile, 
and  with  very  little  trouble  and  expense  could  be 
watered  all  the  year  round.  The  soil  in  these  valleys 
is  magnificent,  and  I  should  say  would  grow  practi- 
cally everything.  At  present  they  still  only  cultivate 
inferior  mealies,  kafir  corn,  millet  (a  kind  of  bean),  and 
an  insipid  sort  of  water  melon.  The  beneficial  effects  of 
improvements  in  cultivation  they  cannot,  or  will  not, 
recognise,  and  hence  they  have  made  no  material 
advance  during  the  century  or  more  that  they  have 
been  in  contact  with  civilisation.  The  reserve  is 
fairly  well  stocked  with  cattle  of  a  sort,  and,  on  the 
whole,  these  are  in  good  condition  now,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  small  stock  are  scarce  and  poor.  This 
latter,  I  imagine,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
no  attempt  is  made  by  the  Batlapin  to  improve  the 
breed  he  possesses :  quantity,  and  not  quality,  being 
his  ruling  aim.  The  chief  of  Manthe,  Kgantlapane, 
preserves  to  some  extent  the  wood  left  in  his  portion 
of  the  reserve,  but,  in  Molala's  part  there  is  almost 
nothing  left,  and  even  that  useful  and  valuable  bush, 
the  "  vaalbosch,"  has  been  almost  entirely  eradicated, 

The  same  complaints  of  inefficient  or  deteriorating  methods 
of  agriculture  are  heard  from  Natal,  the  Transvaal, 
and  elsewhere.  Sir  Alfred  E.  Pease,  formerly  Resident 
Magistrate  for  the  Barberton  District,  Transvaal,  writes : 
"Cultivation  round  native  kraals  is  primitive  and  wasteful. 
Valuable  timber  in  the  creeks  is  burnt  and  destroyed  in 
order  to  obtain  for  a  short  period  patches  of  rich  virgin  soil 

*  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1906,  p  33. 


74  LAND  TENURE  [chap. 

— quickly  abandoned.  Where  natives  are  allowed  to 
destroy  forest  trees  they  should  be  compelled  to  afforest 
and  plant,  under  supervision  of  the  Forest  Department,  with 
free  labour,  a  double  or  treble  area." 

Every  encouragement  should  be  given  to  all  movements, 
such  as  the  Glen  Grey  Act,  directed  to  increasing  the 
individual  holding  of  land  by  the  native  where  he  desires 
to  have  it  and  is  able  to  benefit  by  it.  The  gradual 
extension  of  this  system  will  give  to  the  native  an  incentive 
to  work,  increase  his  self-respect,  and  tend  to  lessen  the 
power  of  the  chiefs.  It  will,  moreover,  tend  to  a  better 
and  less  wasteful  cultivation  of  the  land  than  exists  where 
he  feels  his  tenure  more  or  less  insecure.  The  Native 
Affairs  Commission  considered  that  ^  where  individual 
tenure  could  with  advantage  be  granted  in  respect  of 
location  and  reserve  land  now  held  by  natives  under  the 
communal  system,  it  should  be  granted,  subject  to  the 
payment  of  an  annual  rent,  and  to  liability  to  forfeiture  in 
case  of  rebellion,  failure  to  occupy  beneficially,  or  to  pay 
any  rent  or  tax,  or  a  second  conviction  for  stock-theft. 
All  rights  to  minerals  and  precious  stones  should  be 
reserved  ;  also  a  right  of  resumption  for  public  purposes, 
subject  to  compensation  in  land  or  otherwise.  The  size 
of  each  holding  might  well  be  determined  by  present 
occupation  and  quality  of  land,  with  a  limit,  in  the  absence 
of  special  circumstances,  of  approximately  four  morgen 
(8"4  acres).  For  a  long  time,  in  all  ordinary  cases, 
mortgaging  or  pledging  must  be  forbidden,  and  alienation 
or  transfer  only  allowed  with  the  sanction  of  Government. 
Commonage  will  have  to  be  set  apart,  subject,  with  the 
holdings,  to  such  duties  and  regulations  as  may  be 
established  with  regard  thereto.  Three  of  the  Com- 
missioners, Colonel  Stanford,  Mr.  Sloley,  and  Captain 
Quayle  Dickson,  reported,  however,  as  follows  : 

'  The  Native  Affairs  Commission  1903-5  Report,  vol.  i.  p.  30. 


RESERVATION  OF  LAND 


75 


Natives  in  the  occupation  of  reserves  which  have 
descended  to  them  from  their  forefathers,  or  which 
for  other  good  reasons  have  been  set  aside  for  their 
permanent  use  by  any  Government,  have  a  just  claim 
to  a  greater  fixity  of  tenure  than  is  implied  in  the 
occupation  and  conditions  approved  by  the  majority 
of  the  Commission,  and  more  particularly  so  in  respect 
of  those  tribes  which  by  voluntary  submission  to  our 
Government  have  been  received  into  its  protection  upon 
the  understanding  that,  save  for  rebellion,  their  land 
should  not  be  taken  from  them.  They  [these  Com- 
missioners] are  in  favour  of  the  principle  embodied  in 
the  Glen  Grey  Act,  by  which  perpetual  quit-rent  title 
is  granted  to  each  individual  holder  of  land  upon  the 
subdivision  of  any  location  or  reserve.  Less  than  this 
would  not,  in  their  opinion,  afford  an  adequate  sense  of 
security  to  natives  whose  advance  in  civilised  ideas  is 
indicated  by  their  readiness  to  abandon  their  long- 
cherished  tribal  system  of  occupation  of  land  ;  nor  do 
they  think  it  would  be  a  just  recognition  of  existing 
rights. 

The  whole  question  of  the  reservation  of  land  for  natives 
requires  careful  consideration.  It  would  probably  be  well, 
as  recommended  by  the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  that 
the  land  set  apart,  or  to  be  set  apart,  for  native  occupation 
should  be  defined  by  legislative  enactment,  and  that  this 
should  be  done  with  a  view  to  making  a  final  provision  for 
the  native  population.  The  Commission  were,  however, 
of  opinion  that  in  setting  apart  any  land,  the  Crown 
should  reserve  all  minerals  and  precious  stones,  also  the 
right  to  remove  the  occupier  and  to  re-enter  in  case  of 
rebellion  and  the  power  to  apply  regulations. 

Of  their  other  recommendations,  the  one  most  open  to 
question  is  that  in  which  they  advise  that,  in  order  to 
prevent  conflict  with  European  owners,  purchase  of  land 
by,  or  leasing  of  land  to,  natives  should  in  future  be 
limited  to  certain  areas  defined  by  legislative  enactment. 
The  adoption  of  such  a  course  was  dissented  from  by  the 
Natal  delegates  and  Colonel  Stanford,  and  it  would  seem 


76 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


to  introduce  a  curtailment  of  privileges  hitherto  enjoyed 
in  our  Colonies.  It  was  Colonel  Stanford's  opinion  that 
only  in  the  event  of  its  leading  to  the  extension  of  the 
tribal  system  beyond  the  reserves  or  locations  would 
the  right  of  native  purchase  be  contrary  to  the  best 
interests  of  both  races,  and  similar  views  are  expressed  by 
some  of  the  Committee's  correspondents.  "  While  agreeing," 
writes  Mr.  G.  E.  Dugmore,  "  with  first  part  of  Commission's 
report  in  regard  to  non-advisability  of  compulsory  measures 
of  subdivision,  I  agree  with  Colonel  Stanford's  view,  and 
would  not  limit  the  right  of  the  native  as  a  British  subject 
to  purchase  land  wherever  he  chose,  provided  it  was  not 
for  the  extension  of  tribal  system.  If  a  native  buys  a 
farm  among  Europeans,  he  should  farm  it  on  European 
lines,  and  not  establish  a  location  for  natives  thereon, 
which  would  inevitably  lead  to  trouble  with  his  European 
neighbours,  for,  unfortunately,  experience  teaches  that 
sheep-stealing  invariably  follows."  Another  of  the  Com- 
mittee's correspondents,  Mr.  John  Hemming,  for  many 
years  Civil  Commissioner  for  the  Albany  Division  in  Cape 
Colony,  writes,  that,  in  the  Cape  Colony, 

there  is  no  restriction  to  the  acquisition  of  land  by 
natives,  and,  in  my  opinion,  very  justly  so.  It  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of  that  all  land  held  by  Europeans 
in  Africa  has  been  acquired  by  conquest  or  diplomacy, 
and  that  the  aboriginal  natives  have  been  ousted  by 
the  white  man  ;  that  being  so,  I  cannot  see  any  reason 
that  can  be  advanced  why  the  native  should  not  be 
allowed  to  buy  back  what  he  has  lost ;  in  my  opinion, 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so  where  he  has  the 
means  at  his  disposal. 

Where  a  native  by  his  thrift  and  industry  has 
acquired  sufficient  money  to  buy  land,  why  should  he 
be  restricted  from  doing  so  ?  He  is  a  better  citizen 
than  the  thriftless  European  who  lives  from  hand  to 
mouth  and  makes  no  effort  to  better  his  circumstances. 
I  know  many  natives  who  have  commenced  from 
nothing  but  their  own  labour  on  farms,  who  are  now 


NATIVE  LANDOWNERS 


77 


worth  a  great  deal  of  property,  well  stocked  with 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  who  cultivate  largely  and 
with  success.  These  men  started  as  young  men  to 
work  for  a  European  farmer  at  a  remuneration  of 
something  like  ten  or  twelve  sheep  or  goats,  or  an  old 
mare  or  cow  per  annum,  with  their  keep,  and  have 
gradually,  by  saving,  industry,  and  trading  in  live- 
stock, gone  on  increasing  their  means  until  they  had 
sufficient  to  buy  land.  One  man,  a  Fingoe,  whom  I 
know,  brought  £\,6oo  in  gold  to  me  when  I  was  in 
office  many  years  ago,  to  count  for  him,  and  I  saw 
him  hand  it  over  in  payment  for  a  farm  ;  another  [as 
his  attorney  informed  a  Commission  of  which  Mr. 
Hemming  was  chairman]  was  worth  from  16,000  to 
;^20,ooo  in  land  and  live-stock.  Such  men  as  these 
and  their  families  have  always  been  peaceful,  law- 
abiding,  hard-working  citizens,  of  great  assistance  to 
us  in  native  wars,  and  there  can  be  no  reason  against 
their  becoming  landed  proprietors ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  should  have  every  encouragement,  and  there  can 
be  no  fear  of  their  behaviour  as  peaceful  citizens  now 
that  the  power  of  chieftainship  is  completely  broken. 

But  it  is  not  with  the  natives  of  the  Cape  Colony 
that  we  need  be  so  much  concerned,  except  in  the 
case  of  future  settlements  in  the  Transkeian  territories 
when  these  come  to  be  made,  and  then  legislation 
should  be  carefully  watched  lest  endeavours  be  made 
to  deprive  deserving  natives  of  the  privilege  of  ac- 
quiring title  to  land. 

In  the  Transvaal  strong  efforts  are  being  made  to 
restrict  the  acquisition  of  land  by  natives  ;  but  I  can 
see  neither  justice  nor  reason  in  such  a  measure.  If 
the  native,  by  his  education,  honesty,  thrift,  and 
industry,  has  got  the  means  to  buy  land,  even  in  the 
Transvaal,  why  should  he  not  be  allowed  to  do  so, 
under  conditions  such  as  reserving  to  the  Government 
the  right  to  minerals,  precious  stones,  etc.,  and 
inserting  clauses  in  his  title  that  the  land  would  be 
liable  to  forfeiture  in  case  of  rebellion  or  repeated 
conviction  of  theft,  or  some  such  crime  as  would  make 
him  an  undesirable  person  to  hold  land  and  a  nuisance 
to  his  neighbours  ? 

The  natives  are  already  pretty  tightly  "  squeezed  "  in 
the  matter  of  land  in  South  Africa,  and  it  is  time  this 
"  squeezing  "  process  came  to  an  end  :  they  must  have 


78 


LAND  TENURE 


[chap. 


somewhere  to  live.  What  would  we  do  in  this  country 
without  them  ?  Where  could  we  obtain  a  supply  of  labour 
without  them  ?  They  are  a  source  of  revenue  to  the 
country  ;  they  are  large  consumers  of  British  imports, 
and  if  settled  on  the  land  are  good  producers  and 
farmers,  paying  the  same  taxes  as  the  Europeans.  .  .  . 

In  my  opinion,  there  should  be  large  reserves  for 
purely  native  occupation  in  each  Colony,  and  within 
these  no  encroachment  by  Europeans  should  be 
allowed.  This  would  render  both  Europeans  and 
natives  happier  and  better  neighbours,  and  help  to 
do  away  with  the  "  land  hunger  "  of  many  people.  .  .  . 

It'should  be  noted  that  in  the  Transkei,  and  in  other  native 
areas  in  Cape  Colony,  Europeans  who  have  obtained  the 
consent  of  the  Government  may  occupy  trading  sites,  and 
that  Europeans  may  buy  plots  in  townships  which  are  laid 
out  round  magistracies.  Traders  are  also  admitted  in  other 
colonies  and  possessions,  but  they  may  not  acquire  any 
real  right  to  the  land  they  occupy.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
would  appear  that  if  the  right  of  the  native  be  unrestricted, 
the  amount  of  land  in  native  occupation  will  probably 
become  greatly  extended.  Much  irritation  would  also  be 
occasioned  by  natives  settling  in  the  midst  of  a  white  com- 
munity. It  would  seem,  therefore,  desirable  that  at  any 
rate  certain  portions  of  urban  districts  should  be  reserved 
exclusively  for  occupation  by  the  white  population.  The 
application  of  the  principle  on  a  large  scale  seems,  however, 
to  be  one  to  which  grave  exception  may  be  taken. 

It  is  impossible  to  deal  fully  here  with  the  many  aspects 
of  the  land  question,  but  "squatting"  and  contracts  of 
tenancy  seem  to  require  special  attention.  The  indiscrimi- 
nate squatting  of  natives  on  private  and  Crown  lands  has 
led  to  many  evils,  such  as  absentee  landlordism,  insecurity 
of  tenure  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  and  lack  of  proper 
control  ;  it  does  not  encourage  the  native  to  go  forth  to 
work.  It  would  seem  desirable  that  legislation  on  the 
lines  of  the  Cape  Native  Locations  Amendment  Act  (No. 


II]  ■  SQUATTING  79 

30  of  1899)  should  be  introduced  in  the  Transvaal  and 
elsewhere  to  regulate  such  occupation,  and  that  its  main 
principles  should  be  applied  to  natives  on  Crown  lands 
other  than  native  reserves  or  locations.  The  distribution 
of  native  families  in  groups  or  at  centres  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  land  forms  a  sound  basis  of  policy  and 
affords  a  fair  standard  of  limitation  of  squatting.  It  must 
prove  an  advantage  to  the  country  to  lessen  the  cost  of 
transport  and  the  dangers  incident  to  labour  procured 
from  afar,  by  more  and  more  securing  for  each  district  a 
resident  labouring  population  according  to  its  needs.  It 
appears  that  natives  are  often  prevented  by  the  terms  of 
their  contracts  of  tenancy  from  leaving  farms  at  seasons 
of  the  year  when  their  labour  is  not  required,  to  seek 
work  elsewhere.  This  not  only  obstructs  the  labour  supply 
but  closes  the  door  to  the  advancement  of  the  native. 
Tenancy  agreements  with  the  native  are,  moreover,  usually 
only  verbal,  and  it  would  appear  that,  at  any  rate  where 
these  agreements  exceed  one  year,  they  should  be  in 
writing  and  attested,  so  that  the  terms  may  be  clearly 
defined  and  understood. 

The  condition  of  the  natives  differs  in  each  colony  or 
possession.  This  is  in  some  degree  brought  about  by, 
and  reflects,  the  widely  diverse  treatment  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected  ;  but  there  are  certain  facts  relating 
to  their  respective  circumstances  and  distribution  which 
must  adversely  affect  the  immediate  adoption  of  any 
uniform  policy.  In  Cape  Colony  the  natives  are  placed 
geographically  very  favourably  from  the  point  of  view  of 
administration.  The  native  population  is  thinnest  near 
the  centres  of  white  settlement,  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion occupying  outlying  territory  which  it  has  been  easy 
to  set  aside  as  reserved  for  them.  As  is  natural,  the 
native  within  easiest  reach  of  contact  with  Europeans 


So  LAND  TENURE  [chap. 

has  been  most  afifected,  perhaps  by  the  very  violence  of 
the  contact,  and  has  advanced  farther  in  the  direction  of 
understanding  European  ways.  Experiments  in  individual 
responsibility,  such  as  the  Glen  Grey  Act,  have  been  applied 
to  the  nearest  districts  beyond  the  Kei  River,  and  there  is 
every  appearance  that  the  continuance  of  such  a  careful 
and  liberal  policy  will  result  in  the  extension,  however 
gradual,  of  civilisation  and  improved  methods  of  land 
occupation  throughout  the  remoter  native  reserves.  In 
Natal,  on  the  other  hand,  large  blocks  of  land  reserved 
for,  or  occupied  by,  native  tribes  are  found  in  close 
proximity  to  the  towns  and  cutting  off  parts  of  the  white 
population  from  others.  The  importance  of  friendly 
relations  between  native  and  white  colonists  is  thus 
enormously  enhanced.  This  was  abundantly  illustrated 
during  the  native  rising  in  Natal  of  1906.  It  is  difficult 
in  these  circumstances  to  understand  why  more  has  not 
been  done  in  this  colony  for  the  development  of  native 
civilisation  or  for  the  improvement  of  their  condition.  For 
years  the  reports  of  Natal  magistrates  have  acknowledged 
a  want  of  trust  and  confidence  in  many  of  their  districts  ; 
the  despatches  of  the  Governor  of  the  Colony  during  the 
rising  and  the  report  of  the  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commis- 
sion 1906-7  give  very  definite  evidence  of  the  alienation  of 
native  feeling.  The  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  in  Natal 
the  native  question  will  have  to  be  taken  up  very  far  back 
on  the  road  along  which  Cape  Colony  has  been  for  some 
time  travelling. 

The  effect  of  past  treatment  of  natives  in  the  Transvaal 
and  Orange  River  Colony  is  that  the  tribal  units  have  been 
far  more  broken  up,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  native 
population  is  in  small  scattered  groups. 

The  mines  will  no  doubt  continue  to  draw  their  supplies 
of  labour  from  the  Portuguese  Territories  and  from  the 
Native  Territories,  such  as  Basutoland  and  the  Transkei, 


n]  IMPORTANCE  OF  NATIVE  AGRICULTURE  8 1 


and  from  the  larger  native  settlements  in  the  reserves  in  the 
Transvaal  and  elsewhere  ;  but  even  for  them  the  policy 
has  been  advocated  of  encouraging  permanent  migration 
to  the  labour  centres  and  the  establishment  within  easy 
reach  of  them  of  locations  or  native  townships  under  what- 
ever form  of  organisation  may  ultimately  prove  to  be  the 
most  convenient  and  beneficial. 

The  interests  of  the  whites  would  thus  appear  to  be 
identical  throughout  South  Africa.  Besides  the  need  for 
a  certain  number  of  labourers  to  help  in  the  manifold 
employments  of  town  and  port  life,  the  main  thought  of 
the  European  is  how  he  shall  obtain  a  continuous  supply 
of  labour  for  his  mines  and  his  farms.  This  great  and 
crying  need  has  often  made  him  overlook  the  importance 
to  the  rest  of  South  Africa  (and  the  great  part  that  might 
be  played  thereby  in  building  up  her  prosperity)  of  a  really 
efficient  substratum  of  native  agricultural  population. 
Whatever  the  numbers  streaming  out  to  work,  the  majority 
will  remain  occupied  with,  if  not  dependent  on,  their  land. 
The  aim  should  be  for  the  native  to  become  less  a  pastoral 
peasant  and  more  an  agricultural  one  ;  and  all  movements 
in  this  direction,  such  as  facilitating  his  obtaining  the 
necessary  implements  of  husbandry,  should  be  encouraged. 

If  the  natives,  even  in  unprogressive  districts,  could  be 
taught  to  produce  more  than  sufficient  for  their  needs,  as 
that  surplus  grew  they  would  more  and  more  help  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  the  necessaries  of  life  to  a  reasonable  and  cus- 
tomary price,  and  they  would  also  take  more  and  more 
manufactured  articles  in  exchange.  It  is  obvious  that  this 
cannot  be  brought  about  in  a  day  ;  it  is  equally  obvious 
that  the  natives  will  not  develop  in  this  direction  even, 
without  continuous  and  judicious  efforts  on  the  part  of 
the  white  population. 


6 


CHAPTER  III 


TAXATION 

The  practice  of  raising  revenue  from  the  native  by  means 
of  a  tax  on  his  huts  has  long  been  established  in  Cape 
Colony  and  elsewhere.  Although  the  tendency  in  recent 
years  has  been  to  substitute  a  poll-tax,  the  old  system 
remains  in  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Basutoland,  the  Bechuana- 
land  Protectorate,  and  North-Eastern  Rhodesia.  One  of 
the  main  differences  in  the  incidence  of  hut-  and  poll-tax 
is  that  the  latter  becomes  payable  at  an  earlier  age  than 
that  at  which  it  is  customary  for  a  native  to  have  a  hut 
of  his  own,^  though  contributions  towards  the  hut-tax  are 
often  made  by  the  younger  natives  to  the  kraal  head. 
As  each  wife  has  usually  a  separate  hut,  a  hut-tax  has  the 
effect  of  taxing  the  native  more  heavily  if  he  has  more 
than  one  wife.  This  principle  has  been  continued  in  the 
Transvaal  and  Southern  and  North- Western  Rhodesia 
(where  hut-tax  has  been  superseded  by  poll-tax)  by  the 
levying  of  a  special  tax  in  respect  of  additional  wives. 

These  taxes,  particulars  of  which  are  given  in  the 
statement  on  the  next  page,  bring  in  a  sum  of  over 
;^ 1, 000,000  annually. 

The  Transvaal  poll-tax  of  £2  was  imposed  by  the 
Native    Tax    Ordinance,    1902,   on    every   adult  male 

'  In  order  to  avoid  the  difficult  task  of  ascertaining  the  exact  age  of 
a  native  it  is  merely  enacted  in  the  Transvaal  and  Rhodesia  that  poll- 
tax  shall  be  paid  by  every  adult  male  native,  and  it  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  tax-collector  to  decide  when  a  native  becomes  liable. 

83 


CHAP.  Ill]  HUT-  AND  POLL-TAXES  83 


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84  TAXATION  [CHAP. 

aboriginal  native  domiciled  in  the  Transvaal.  The  same 
Ordinance  enacted  that  if  a  native  had  more  than  one  wife, 
he  should  pay  £2  per  annum  for  each  additional  wife. 
These  taxes,  designed  to  consolidate  the  various  taxes 
payable  by  natives  under  the  late  South  African  Republic, 
proved  too  burdensome,  and  by  the  Native  Tax  Amend- 
ment Ordinance,  1906,  a  tax  of  £2  per  annum,  if  a  native 
had  more  than  one  wife,  was  substituted  for  the  additional 
wife-tax  imposed  in  1902.  By  the  same  Ordinance  the 
poll-tax  of  £2  was  reduced  to  in  the  case  of  natives 
who  are  bond  fide  farm  labourers  and  have  worked 
continuously  for  a  certain  period,  and  in  the  case  of  natives 
residing  by  permission  and  working  within  municipal 
areas  and  paying  municipal  taxes.  This  reduction  in  the 
poll-tax  was  made  with  the  object  of  encouraging  labour. 

In  the  Orange  River  Colony  the  poll-tax  was  increased 
from  \os.  \.o  £\  by  the  Poll-Tax  Consolidation  Ordinance, 
1904.  This  tax  is  imposed  on  each  coloured  person  of 
the  male  sex  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  sixty  years 
domiciled  in  the  Colony.^  In  Basutoland  the  hut-tax  was 
raised  from  lOi-.  to  in  the  year  1 899-1 900.  In  Southern 
Rhodesia  a  poll-tax  of  £\  was  imposed  in  1904,  instead  of 
a  former  hut-tax  of  \os.  A  further  tax  was  at  the  same 
time  imposed  of  \os.  for  each  wife  beyond  the  first.^  In 
North-Western  Rhodesia,  by  Proclamation  No.  16  of  1905, 
which  repealed  the  then  existing  hut-tax,  every  male  native 
of  18  years  or  upwards  has  to  pay  such  sum,  not  exceed- 
ing £1,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  specified  by  the 

'  The  Ordinance  mentions  certain  classes  of  persons  (including 
persons  who  have  personally  resided  in  the  Colony  during  the  whole 
period  for  which  the  tax  is  payable)  who  are  to  be  treated  as  domiciled 
in  the  Colony  for  the  purposes  of  the  Act.  Certain  persons  residing 
on  recognised  public  diggings  and  persons  having  rights  to  land  in  the 
Colony  and  liable  to  pay  quit-rent  are  exempted  from  payment  of  the 
tax. 

*  Southern  Rhodesia  Ordinance  No.  21  of  1904,  section  4. 


Ill] 


HUT-  AND  POLL-TAXES 


85 


Administrator,  with  the  approval  of  the  High  Com- 
missioner, and,  if  such  native  has  more  than  one  wife,  a 
further  tax  of  10s.  in  respect  of  each  additional  wife.  In 
North-Eastern  Rhodesia  by  the  Hut-Tax  Regulations,  1900, 
every  male  native  has  to  pay  a  hut-tax  of  3^.,  which  may 
be  raised  to  5^-.  ,by  the  Administrator  with  the  consent 
of  the  High  Commissioner.  The  Ndola  and  Loangwa 
districts,  formerly  a  portion  of  North-Eastern  Rhodesia 
Territory,  were  taken  over  by  the  North- Western  Rhodesia 
Administration  under  the  High  Commissioner's  Notice 
No.  33  of  1905,  and  the  existing  tax  of  ^s.  was  raised  to  ^s. 

In  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  the  hut-tax  has  been 
increased  from  10s.  to  by  Proclamation  No.  i  of  1907. 
Referring  to  this  increase  of  taxation,  Mr.  Barry  May,  the 
Government  Secretary  for  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate, 
states  in  his  report  for  the  year  1906-7':  "Prior  to  the 
issue  of  the  Proclamation,  the  Resident  Commissioner 
visited  each  of  the  paramount  chiefs  (excepting  Mathibi 
in  Ngamiland),  and  explained  to  them  and  their  people 
assembled  in  '  kgotla '  the  intentions  of  the  Government 
in  the  matter.  The  news,  although  naturally  not  of  a 
character  calculated  to  please,  was  everywhere  received 
without  any  manifestations  of  serious  objection.  The 
natives  evidently  feel  that  they  have  been  fortunate  in  only 
having  had  to  pay  los.  in  the  past,  and  are  prepared 
with  cheerful  resignation  to  pay  the  larger  sum  in 
future." 

Taxation  by  means  of  a  hut-  or  poll-tax  has  become 
much  heavier  during  recent  years  in  Natal,  Basuto- 
land,  the  Orange  River  Colony,  Rhodesia,  and  the 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate.  The  consolidated  tax  of  £2 
per  annum  in  the  Transvaal  appears  onerous,  and  the 
collection  of  taxes  in  that  country  is  more  strictly  enforced 
than  formerly. 

'  Colonial  Reports,  Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  1906-7,  p.  9. 


86  TAXATION  [CHAP. 

In  Ca.pe  Colony  hut-tax  is  not  chargeable  in  respect  of 
any  occupant  of  a  native  location  so  old  or  chronically 
infirm  as  to  be  incapable  of  working.^  In  most  of  the 
other  colonies  and  possessions  there  are  various  exemptions 
from  payment  of  the  hut-  or  poll-tax. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  taxes  vary  considerably  in 
amount  The  native  is  well  aware  of  the  differences,  but 
he  fails  to  understand  the  reason  of  them.  There  is  a 
strong  consensus  of  opinion  that  a  more  uniform  system, 
possibly  with  some  local  graduations,  should  be  adopted 
throughout  the  country.  In  his  eWdence  before  the 
Native  Affairs  Commission,  Sir  C.  J.  R.  Saunders,  the 
Chief  Magistrate  and  CivH  Commissioner  of  Zululand,  gave 
as  his  reasons  for  thinking  such  a  system  desirable  that 
the  natives  ^  "  going  about  as  they  do  now,  working  and 
coming  in  contact  with  people  firom  other  parts,  go  back 
with  all  sorts  of  stories  that  one  people  are  ruled  one  way, 
and  another  in  another.  They  think  they  should  have 
one  system  of  laws  to  apply  to  the  whole."  Frequent 
complaints  are  also  made  by  farmers  and  others  that 
where  taxation  is  lighter  in  an  adjoining  territory  natives 
stray  across  the  border. 

The  native  also  contributes  largely  to  the  revenue 
through  the  customs  duties  which  are  levied  on  goods 
used  and  food  consumed  by  him.  It  is  extremely  difficult 
to  ascertain  at  all  accurately  the  amounts  paid  individually 
by  the  natives.  Sufficient  data  cannot  be  obtained  for  the 
purpose.  But  "  an  estimate  of  2s.  per  head  per  annum 
as  the  average  amount  contributed  by  all  the  natives 
throu^out  British  South  Africa  in  indirect  taxation 
appears  to  be  a  fair  one."'  On  this  basis,  the  amount 
annually  received  in  this  way  from  natives   is  nearly 

•  Act  No.  30  of  1899,  section  24. 

*  The  Native  Affairs  Cominissioc,  1903-5,  Report,  voL  iii.  p.  768. 
»  Hid.  vol.  i,  p.  86. 


Ill] 


CUSTOMS  DUTIES 


87 


500,000.  This  sum,  of  course,  increases  year  by  year 
with  the  purchasing  power  of  the  native,  as  he  acquires 
education  and  becomes  more  civilised. 

How  important  a  consumer  he  is  becoming  can  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  the  following  articles,  on  most  of  which 
customs  duties  had  been  paid,  were  imported  into  Basuto- 
land  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  ^  viz. : 


Articles,  etc.  Value. 

Animals:  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  etc   .£2,567 

Apparel,  slops,  etc   15,200 

Bags  of  all  sorts   7,668 

Beads  of  all  sorts      .......  1,069 

Cotton  piece-goods   12,871 

Cotton  manufactures .       ......  22,146 

Food  and  drink,  articles  of       ....       .  23,800 

Haberdashery  and  millinery   I7i58l 

Hardware  and  cutlery,  fencing  material,  etc.    .       .  8,473 

Hats  and  caps   1,176 

Implements  (agricultural)   3,94° 

Leather  and  leather  manufactures  (including  boots 

and  shoes  and  saddlery)   14.485 

Soap  of  all  kinds       .......  31696 

Wood,  manufactured  and  unmanufactured  .  .  4,162 
Woollen    manufactures    (including    blankets  and 

shawls)   69,790 

All  other  articles  of  merchandise      ....  33,729 


Total  ;£242,353 


The  following  statement  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Leary,  the 
Resident  Magistrate  for  the  District  of  Mount  Ayliff  in 
the  Transkeian  Territories,  in  his  report  for  the  year 
1905,  gives  valuable  information  as  to  the  trade  with 
natives  in  that  district,  and  shows  the  rate  of  customs 
duty  paid  on  the  various  articles  imported  ^ : 

'  Colonial  Reports,  Basutoland,  1906-7,  p.  10.  The  above  figures 
include  importations  of  South  African  produce  from  other  territories 
amounting  to 

^  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1905,  p.  48. 


88  TAXATION  [chap. 

"  The  ordinary  native,"  he  writes,  "  contributes  to  the 
revenue  by  indirect  taxation  as  follows " : 


Native  Traders'  Wares. 
Articles. 

Proportion  to 
Total  Business. 

Rate  of  Customs 
Paid  by  Trader 
on  Article. 

Blankets  

Shawls  

25  per  cent. 

1   20  per  cent. 

Beads  

5 

SO 

Groceries  ..... 

5 

Hoes,  etc  

I 

Clothing  

30 

Hardware,  various 

24 

In  addition  to  the  hut-  and  poll-taxes  and  the  customs 
duties,  the  most  important  native  taxes  are  fees  on 
passes  and  for  trading  and  other  licences,  and  dog-tax. 
Large  sums  are  also  received  for  fines  and  fees  of  court. 
These  charges  are  not  uniform  in  character  throughout 
British  South  Africa,  and  where  some  or  all  of  them  are 
imposed,  they  vary  considerably  in  amount.  They  form 
a  large  contribution  to  the  revenue  of  the  country.  In 
Natal  and  Zululand,  during  the  year  1907,  the  following 
amounts  were  received  from  these  sources  ^ : 


Natal. 

Zululand. 

£  s. 

J. 

s.  d. 

Dog-tax  

15.345  5 

0 

4-303 

14  0 

Pass  fees  (including  fees  under 

Act  No.  49  of  1901) . 

3,539  9 

0 

436 

19  0 

Fees  on  medical  licences  . 

2,799  0 

0 

702 

12  6 

P'ines  and  fees  of  court 

23,108  15 

9 

3.393 

13  6 

Fees  on  Native  Christian  mar- 

riages ..... 

432  0 

0 

71 

0  0 

'  Natal  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1907,  p.  114. 


in]                          FEES  ON  PASSES,  ETC.  89 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  the  sum  of 
;^3,948  4s.  gd.  was  received  for  licence  fees  in  Basutoland, 
and  the  following  licences  were  issued/  viz.  : 

General  trader   168 

Hawkers  (paid)   405 

(free)   203 

Mill  licence   i 

Labour  agents   298 


The  statement  on  the  next  page,  which  is  an  extract 
from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Native  Affairs  Department 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1906,  gives  particulars 
of  the  laws  in  force  in  the  Transvaal  as  to  passes  for 
natives,  and  the  estimated  revenue  derived  therefrom.^ 

By  the  Registration  and  Control  of  Dogs  Act,  1907, 
a  tax  of  per  annum  was  imposed  in  the  Transvaal 
for  a  Kafir  hunting-dog  or  dog  of  a  similar  kind,  and 
a  tax  of  lOi".  per  annum  in  respect  of  any  other  kind 
of  dog. 

The  natives  also  pay,  in  many  municipal  and  other 
districts,  rates  for  local  purposes.  The  principle  of  their 
participating  in  their  own  local  government,  including 
the  levying  of  rates,  has  been  successfully  introduced  in 
the  district  of  Glen  Grey  and  in  a  great  part  of  the 
Transkeian  Territories.^  To  show  how  largely  these 
powers  of  rating  have  been  used,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  during  the  year  1907  the  Transkeian  Territories 
General  Council  received  from  the  proceeds  of  its  general 
rate  £4.6,7S4  ioj.,  the  main  items  of  expenditure  of  the 
Council  for  that  period  being  ;^  16,428  4^.  8d.  on  educa- 
tion, and  £\2,Ggo  3i".  \\d.  on  roads.*    In  Crown  locations 

'  Colonial  Reports,  Basutoland,  1906-7,  p.  10. 

'  The  amounts  received  in  Natal  and  elsewhere,  where  pass  fees  are 
mposed,  are  comparatively  insignificant. 
'  See  Chapter  IV. 

*  Cape  Colony  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1907,  p.  46.  Europeans 
benefit,  without  contributing,  in  respect  of  this  expenditure  on  roads. 


90 


TAXATION 


[chap. 


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Ill]         EXPENDITURE  FOR  BENEFIT  OF  NATIVES  Ql 

in  Cape  Colony  a  tax  of  2s.  per  annum  is  imposed  on  hut- 
tax  payers,  to  be  used  by  the  Divisional  Council  for 
road  rates.^  Boards  of  Management  of  native  reserves 
in  the  Orange  River  Colony  may  levy  a  location  tax  not 
exceeding  £i  in  any  year  on  each  coloured  male  person 
between  the  ages  of  i6  and  60,  resident  within  the  reserve.^ 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  annual  income  derived  from 
the  natives  (including  ^1,000,000  for  hut-  and  poll-taxes  and 
;^500,ooo  for  customs  duties)  may  be  estimated  at  about 
;^2,ooo,ooo.  How  much  of  this  sum  can  fairly  be  treated 
as  expended  directly  or  indirectly  for  their  benefit?  It  is 
impossible  to  answer  this  question  satisfactorily.  Details 
are  obtainable  as  to  the  amounts  expended  on  their  educa- 
tion and  other  matters  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  apportion 
to  them,  with  any  approach  to  accuracy,  their  fair  share  of 
the  expenses  of  the  administration  of  the  country.^  In 
Basutoland,  a  country  which  is  a  purely  native  reserve,  and 
where  the  whole  of  such  expenses  are  borne  by  the  natives, 
there  is  an  annual  surplus  of  income  over  expenditure. 
It  may  fairly  be  claimed  on  behalf  of  the  native  that 
in  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  the  Transvaal,  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  and  Rhodesia,  he  is  entitled  to  have  more  spent 
on  him.  In  particular,  the  grants  made  in  aid  of  his 
education,  which  at  present  appear  wholly  insufficient, 
should  be  increased.  A  policy  in  this  direction  has  been 
recently  initiated  in  North-Western  Rhodesia.  Mr. 
R.  T.  Coryndon,  the  Administrator,  in  his  report  for  the 

'  Act  No.  30  of  1899,  section  25. 

*  O.R.C.  Native  Reserves  Management  Ordinance,  1907. 

^  One  of  the  subjects  referred  to  the  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission, 
1906-7,  was  "  the  cost  of  administration  and  the  fair  share  therein  of 
the  native  population,  with  particular  reference  to  the  sufficiency  or 
otherwise  of  the  present  contributions  to  revenue  by  natives."  The 
Commission  reported  that  "  as  the  proportion  of  the  cost  of  administra- 
tion fairly  chargeable  to  the  natives  can  only  be  assumed,  no  attempt 
will  be  made  to  answer  this  part  of  the  question." 


92 


TAXATION 


[chap. 


year  1906,  states  that  "with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Colonies,  a  '  Trust  Fund  '  has  been  formed 
of  a  certain  proportion  of  the  native  tax  received,  and  this 
fund  is  to  be  expended  in  works  for  the  direct  benefit 
of  the  native  population.  Already  the  building  of  a 
technical  school  at  Lealui  has  been  commenced,  native 
artisans  from  North-Eastern  Rhodesia  have  been  engaged 
as  teachers,  and  in  the  coming  year  a  school  for  the 
teaching  of  English  will  be  established  at  or  near  Lealui."  ^ 

In  considering  the  question  of  the  taxation  of  the  native 
in  British  South  Africa  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  ex- 
pedient to  maintain,  so  far  as  possible,  methods  of  taxation 
to  which  he  has  gradually  grown  accustomed.  Like  the  white 
man,  he  readily  contributes  to  the  revenue  his  just  share 
through  channels  which  by  long  usage  he  has  grown  to 
recognise  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  conditions  of  his  life. 
He  views  with  suspicion  the  imposition  of  a  new  tax  or  the 
increase  of  an  existing  one. 

In  this  connection  it  seems  well  to  consider  the  position 
in  Natal  and  the  effect  of  the  recent  poll-tax,  which  became 
due  for  collection  on  January  i,  1906.  There  is  evidence 
that  for  some  years  the  natives  of  Natal  have  not  found  it 
altogether  easy  to  pay  their  taxes.  Something  must  be 
put  down  to  reluctance  and  to  the  feelings  of  dissatisfaction 
and  suspicion  which  seem  to  have  been  growing  in  the 
native  mind.  On  the  other  hand,  the  magistrates  reported 
in  1904  that  in  the  Vryheid  division  and  in  three  of  the 
Zululand  divisions,  hut-tax  could  not  be  collected  on 
account  of  real  poverty.^  From  Estcourt  it  was  reported  * 
that  considering  the  great  scarcity  of  food  when  hut-tax 
was  collected,  they  had  paid  remarkably  well.  The  levy  of 
the  poll-tax  increased  the  irritation,  and  Mr.  R.  H.  Addison, 
the  magistrate  for  the  Estcourt  Division,  states  in  his 

'  British  South  Africa  Company's  Report,  1905-6,  p.  52. 

»  NaUl  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1904,  p.  ix.     '  Ibid.  p.  16. 


Ill] 


NATAL 


93 


report  for  the  year  1905  that  ^  "the  event  which  created 
the  greatest  stir  amongst  the  natives  was  the  proclamation 
of  the  poll-tax.  To  say  it  was  generally  received  with  the 
submission  with  which  other  promulgations  from  the  Govern- 
ment are  received  would  be  telling  an  untruth.  Its  re- 
ception may  be  summarised  under  the  following  heads  : 
(i)  A  general  declaration  from  all  natives  residing  on 
location  and  private  lands  of  their  difficulty  in  meeting 
present  taxes  and  rents  to  the  Government  and  their  land- 
lords respectively.  (2)  The  removal  from  their  sons  of  their 
obligation  to  the  kraal  head  of  providing  the  hut-tax 
by  reason  of  the  poll-tax  being  imposed  on  them.  No 
community  in  the  world  likes  taxation.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  poll-tax  is  in  great  disfavour  among  the  natives." 

Other  circumstances  have  rendered  the  burden  of  taxa- 
tion more  irksome  during  recent  years.  Rents  paid  by 
natives  for  the  occupation  of  private  lands  are  now  very 
high.  The  squatters'  rent  on  Crown  lands  in  Natal  Proper 
was  increased  from  £i  to  £2  per  hut  by  Act  No.  48  of 
1903  ;  and  by  regulations  under  the  Mission  Reserves  Act, 
1903,  a  rent  of  ;^3  per  annum  ^  was  imposed  in  respect  of 
every  hut  or  dwelling  situate  in  a  Mission  Reserve.  It  may 
also  be  noted  that  a  dog-tax  of  5^.  per  annum  was  collected 
for  the  first  time  in  Zululand  during  the  year  1905.'  Natives 
in  Natal  and  Zululand  are  also  called  out  in  large  numbers 
by  the  Governor,  as  supreme  chief,  to  supply  labour  at  low 
wages  for  public  works  or  for  the  general  needs  of  the 
Colony.* 

This  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  has  been  carefully 
examined  by  the  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1906-7, 
which  in  its  recently  issued  report  states  that  :^ 

'  Natal  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1905,  p.  11. 

'  This  rent  has  been  reduced  recently  to  -^os.  per  annum. 

^  Natal  Blue  Book  on  Native  Affairs,  1905,  p.  iii. 

*  See  Chapter  I. 

*  Report  of  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1906-7,  p.  33. 


94 


TAXATION 


[chap. 


"  Poll-tax  was  objected  to,  as  was  to  be  expected,  not 
only  because  it  was  a  new  burden,  but  because  it  was 
making  the  sons  less  inclined  to  assist  their  fathers  than 
formerly.  Mutuality  of  interest  and  reciprocity  of  assist- 
ance was,  in  kraal-life,  a  very  real  and  active  principle, 
children  being  required  by  enforced  custom  to  account  for 
their  earnings  to  their  fathers  ;  but  the  force  and  observance 
of  this  commendable  custom  have  for  long  been  on  the  wane, 
the  young  men  spending  much  of  their  wages  upon  them- 
selves. They  have  made  this  tax,  which  is  personal  to 
themselves,  a  reason  for  contributing  less  to  the  parental 
store,  according  to  the  statements  of  old  men,  repeated 
time  after  time  and  in  many  places.  The  generality  of  the 
statement  consequently  lends  it  credibility.  It  should  be  re- 
called that  this  tax  was  imposed  by  Parliament  at  theordinary 
session  of  1905,  the  year  following  the  taking  of  the  census. 
The  general  enumeration  connected  with  the  census  was 
resented  by  the  natives,  who,  not  understanding  its  true  im- 
port, were  naturally  suspicious  of  the  intention  of  the  Govern- 
ment. Great  pains  were  taken  to  allay  their  fears  that 
it  meant  neither  confiscation  nor  fresh  impositions,  but 
merely  a  counting.  Had  there  been  a  body  like  the  pro- 
posed Council  for  Native  Affairs  to  report  upon  such  a 
measure,  and  to  describe  what  effect  it  would  have  upon  the 
native,  particular  stress  would,  undoubtedly,  have  been  laid 
upon  the  repeated  asseverations  of  the  census  officers  and 
the  reflections  of  the  natives  thereon.  Incidents  of  this 
nature  augment  distrust,  and  emphasise  the  wisdom  of 
diffusing  information  regarding  the  intention  of  Govern- 
ment, of  studying  native  feeling,  and  of  consulting  native 
opinion. 

"  The  object  and  proper  incidence  of  the  poll-tax  upon 
themselves  were,  unfortunately,  imperfectly,  and,  perhaps, 
erroneously  conveyed  to  them.  It  was  baldly  represented 
as  a  capitation-  or  head-tax,  which,  by  a  simple  mental 


Ill] 


NATAL 


95 


transposition,  becanne  converted  to  a  payment  for  '  the 
head ' ;  which  was  as  simply  followed  by  the  question, 
'  Why  should  I  pay  for  my  head  ;  is  it  not  my  own  ?  and  if 
I  have  to  pay  for  my  head  this  year,  why  not  for  my  hands 
or  feet  next  year  ? '  Whereas,  it  should  have  been  de- 
scribed to  them  as  a  tribute  due  to  the  Government  by  the 
young  unmarried  men,  the  wage-earners,  who  were  not 
contributing  their  proportion  of  taxation. 

"  The  advantages  of  simplicity  of  policy,  and  continuity 
as  well  as  consistency  of  action,  having  been  fully  demon- 
strated, it  is  advisable  to  adhere  to  well-established  methods, 
if  working  well,  before  resorting  to  new  modes  for  attaining 
the  same  object.  As  the  hut-tax  is  well  understood  and 
regularly  collected,  with  remarkably  few  evasions,  an 
addition  to  it  would  have  been  better  received  than  the 
introduction  of  a  novel,  and,  as  it  turns  out,  an  imperfectly 
understood  form  of  taxation.  In  accordance,  therefore, 
with  these  views,  a  consolidation  of  the  several  items  of 
taxation  is  advocated,  to  take  the  form  of  an  increased  hut- 
tax,  upon  a  higher  scale  in  locations,  and  a  lower  scale  in 
Zululand  and  upon  farms.  In  view  of  the  substantial 
gain  to  the  natives  which  would  follow  the  introduction 
of  the  proposed  changes  in  ameliorating  their  condition 
and  strengthening  their  control,  the  merging  of  taxation 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  result  in  an  increase  of 
the  total  amount  of  their  direct  contributions  to  the 
Treasury.  A  large  increase  thereto  is  neither  proposed 
nor  expected. 

"  Concurrently  with  an  increased  hut-tax,  relief  should 
be  given  in  other  directions,  viz.  by  abolishing  the  rent 
of  £2  per  hut  on  Crown  lands  (now  a  vanishing  amount), 
the  tax  upon  the  bachelor's  hut,  a  modification  of  the  dog- 
tax,  and  the  corvee  or  compulsory  labour  on  public 
works." 

Much  might  be  done  to  alleviate  the  present  position  of 


96  TAXATION  [chap. 

the  native  in  Natal  and  Zululand  by  the  adoption  of  these 
recommendations,  provided  that  the  proposed  increase  in 
the  hut- tax  was  not  excessive. 

In  considering  these  questions  of  taxation,  it  is  well 
to  bear  in  mind  the  wise  counsel  of  Lord  Cromer,  who,  in 
his  Soudan  report  for  the  year  1904,  when  advising  as 
to  the  course  to  be  pursued,  writes :  "  In  deciding  what 
general  policy  is  to  be  adopted  in  countries  such  as 
Egypt  and  the  Soudan,  low  taxation  should  be  the  key- 
stone of  the  political  arch.  It  brings  general  tranquillity 
in  its  train.  It  is  an  essential  preliminary  to  steady  and 
continuous  moral  and  material  improvement.  It  allows, 
either  at  once  or  eventually,  of  the  adoption,  without 
serious  danger  to  the  State,  of  a  policy  in  other  matters 
which  is  in  general  conformity  with  the  liberal  views  and 
traditions  of  the  British  Government  and  of  the  British 
nation.  Expenditure  on  objects,  however  desirable  in 
themselves,  should,  I  venture  to  think,  be  rejected,  or  at 
all  events  postponed,  rather  than  that  the  principle  of 
maintaining  taxes  at  a  low  figure  should  be  in  any  degree 
infringed.  That  is  the  policy  which,  for  more  than  twenty 
years,  has  been  adopted  in  Egypt,  and  for  some  seven 
years  in  the  Soudan.  .  .  . 

"  I  am  aware  that  the  policy  which  I  have  briefly 
described  above,  and  of  which,  during  the  whole  of  my 
administrative  career,  I  have  been  a  persistent  advocate, 
is  slow  in  its  operation,  and  that  its  application  appears  at 
times  to  produce  no  immediate  results.  The  counter- 
policy  of  high  State  expenditure,  which  is  often  urged 
upon  the  governing  authorities  from  many  influential 
quarters,  is  often,  to  all  outward  appearance,  more  pro- 
ductive of  immediate  consequences.  On  the  other  hand, 
I  venture  to  maintain  that  the  advantages  secured  by  the 
former  are  far  more  solid  and  durable  than  any  which  can 
be  obtained  under  the  latter  plan  of  action." 


Ill]  Taxation  for  labour  purposes  97 

The  imposition  of  taxes  for  the  purpose  of  compelling 
natives  to  work  has  in  the  past  been  strongly  advocated. 
This  method  of  increasing  the  supply  of  labour  has  now 
happily  been  discredited  as  both  impolitic  and  unjust. 
But  the  partial  exemption  of  farm  natives  in  the  Transvaal 
from  the  poll-tax,  shows  that  taxation  is  still  regarded  in 
that  Colony  as  a  means  of  regulating  the  labour  supply ; 
and  in  Rhodesia  a  recent  Commission  has  advised  the 
exemption  from  taxation  of  all  natives  who  are  in  the 
service  of  white  employers  for  a  specified  portion  of  the 
year.  This  system  of  relieving  native  employees  from 
liability  for  taxes  needs  to  be  carefully  watched.  A 
reduction  of  taxes  in  the  case  of  the  farm  natives  may  be 
justified  on  the  ground  of  the  smallness  of  their  earnings. 
But  on  this  ground  many  other  natives  would  have  a 
strong  claim  for  similar  treatment.  To  grant  exemptions 
of  this  kind  mainly  with  a  view  to  the  convenience  of 
white  employers  is  a  dangerous  practice,  which  might 
easily  be  abused.  It  might,  in  fact,  lead  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  mischievous  labour-tax  under  a  new  form. 


7 


CHAPTER  IV 


ADMINISTRA  TION 

BY  SIR  GODFREY  Y.  LAGDEN,  K.C.M.G., 

Late  Commissioner  for  Native  Affairs  in  the  Transvaal,  and  formerly 
Resident  Commissioner  of  Basutoland. 

§  I.  Introductory 

In  dealing  with  the  question  of  Administration  of  Native 
Affairs  in  British  South  Africa  it  is  necessary,  while 
considering  and  comparing  the  different  systems  and 
enactments,  to  trace  first  of  all  the  territorial  distribution 
of  the  natives,  and  to  refer  to  a  few  general  features  in 
respect  of  their  absorption  under  civilised  rule. 

The  native  population  to  which  this  chapter  relates 
is  distributed  as  follows  : 


Population. 

Density  per  Square 
Mile  in  Reserves. 

Cape  Colony ..... 

1,424,787 

50-36 

Natal  (including  Zululand)  . 

904,041 

33*35  * 

Transvaal  (including  Swaziland)  , 

1,030,029  ' 

24*00  * 

Orange  River  Colony  , 

235,466 

132-81 

Southern  Rhodesia 

591,1972 

6-80 

Basutoland   .       .             .  . 

347731  ^ 

3378 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate  . 

119,411 

•78 

Total 

4,652,662 

'  Includes  133,745  labourers  temporarily  resident. 
'  Includes  20,367  labourers  temporarily  resident. 
5  Excludes  20,000  absent  at  labour  on  census-taking. 

*  Density  on  reserves  in  Natal  66-48;  in  Zululand  19-58. 

*  Density  on  reserves  in  Transvaal  59-4  ;  in  Swaziland  12-9. 

98 


CHAP.  IV] 


GENERAL  FEATURES 


99 


These  figures  (which  do  not  include  "  coloured  "  or  half- 
caste  people)  are  taken  from  the  latest  standing  records 
in  collective  form,  viz.  from  the  Report  of  the  South 
African  Native  Affairs  Commission  published  in  1905. 

The  colonies  and  possessions  above  named  came  under 
some  kind  of  effective  occupation  or  administration 
approximately  in  the  following  years  : 

Cape  Colony,  18 14.  Natal,  1843. 

Orange  River  Colony,  1848.     Transvaal,  1852, 

Basutoland,  1868.  Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  1885. 

Rhodesia,  1888. 

It  is  material  to  note  these  dates,  because  they  serve 
to  indicate  the  period  during  which  the  aboriginals  have 
been  more  or  less  under  civilised  control.  Throughout 
that  period  the  administrations  have  been  composed,  some- 
times of  British,  sometimes  of  Dutch,  whose  ideas  of  the 
management  of  natives  were  not  always  identical. 

It  was  only  natural  that,  following  upon  a  series  of 
ruptures  between  the  two  European  races  which  ensued 
before  and  after  slavery  was  abolished  by  the  passing  of 
the  Emancipation  Act  in  1834,  a  strong  sentiment  should 
have  animated  the  Dutch  when  they  came  to  frame  their 
own  native  laws  and  regulations  to  be  carried  out  in 
their  own  independent  Republics. 

The  pioneer  settlers  were  few,  scattered,  and  unprotected, 
and  it  is  quite  intelligible  that  they  deemed  it  necessary 
to  make  their  early  laws  affecting  aboriginals  rigorous 
and  restrictive.  Their  doctrine  was  demonstrated  in  the 
Fundamental  Law,  in  which  a  prominent  article  declared  : 
"  The  people  will  admit  of  no  equality  of  persons  of  colour 
with  the  white  inhabitants  in  State  or  Church."  That  ring 
of  stern  domination  may  be  traced  throughout  all  the  early 
Republican  legislation. 

But  other  considerations  at  times  operated  to  prompt 
variation  in  the  form  of  legislation.    In  some  parts  the 


100 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


state  and  capacity  of  the  natives  were  determining 
factors.  Again,  instances  were  not  lacking  where  rigour 
of  rule  was  increased  or  relaxed  according  as  the 
Kafirs  had  offered  obstinate  resistance,  and  were  only 
subdued  after  they  had  perpetrated  cruelties  and  in- 
flicted great  hardships  on  the  settlers,  or  had  surrendered 
readily  ;  or,  indeed,  had  ceded  territory  with  the  mutual 
understanding  for  incorporation  of  their  land  upon  terms 
carrying  with  it  certain  independent  rights.  Yet  another 
element  influenced  law-makers,  viz.  :  the  fact  whether  or 
not  newly  annexed  tribes  were  indissolubly  bound  up  with 
the  tribal  system.  Finally,  much  turned  upon  the  Con- 
stitution, for,  whereas  in  that  of  the  Cape  Colony  natives 
were  accorded  equal  franchise  rights  with  white  people, 
subject  to  property  and  other  qualifications,  in  the  late 
Republics  they  were  debarred  from  direct  representation. 

Under  such  circumstances,  different  laws,  usages,  and 
systems  were  adopted  to  suit  the  varying  sensibilities  and 
conditions  which  the  primitive  Governments  had  to  take 
into  account. 

With  one  consent,  however,  all  Governments  recognised 
the  principle  that  class  legislation  for  natives  was  essential, 
both  in  their  own  interests  and  in  that  of  the  Europeans, 
relating  to  such  matters  as  tenure  of  land,  direct  taxation, 
passes,  liquor,  etc.,  which,  with  little  exception,  resulted  in 
laws  that  came  into  common  use,  though  the  form  of  them 
was  not  identical. 

Another  point  in  common  was  that  the  Head  of  the 
State,  whether  the  Governor  of  a  British  colony  or  the 
President  of  a  Republic,  has  nearly  always  been  clothed 
with  authority  as  Supreme  Chief  of  the  native  population. 
Similarly,  there  was  co-ordination  in  respect  of  the  employ- 
ment of  officers  variously  termed  Resident  Magistrates, 
Landrosts,  or  Commissioners,  as  the  mediums  through 
whom  Government  control  over  the  natives  was  exercised. 


IV]  CAPE  COLONY — TRANSKEI  10 1 

These  officers  were  allowed  a  wide  latitude,  and  were  held 
responsible  either  to  the  Supreme  Chief  direct,  or  to  the 
Governor  in  Council  through  one  of  the  highest  officers  of 
State  holding  ministerial  rank. 

§  2.  Existing  Laws  and  Administrative 
Systems 

To  discuss  in  detail  the  many  laws  and  regulations  of 
force  in  the  South  African  Dependencies  for  the  manage- 
ment and  control  of  the  natives  would  require  much  more 
space  than  the  limits  of  this  chapter  permit.  It  pretends 
only  to  summarise  the  legal  and  administrative  systems. 

All  of  the  colonies  and  possessions  of  South  Africa  are, 
or  have  been  at  one  time  or  another,  under  Crown  Colony 
government,  with  the  exception  of  Rhodesia,  where,  as 
regards  native  affairs,  considerable  powers  are,  under  the 
Royal  Charter,  reserved  to  the  High  Commissioner  for 
South  Africa. 

The  whole  of  the  Cape  Colony,  including  what  is  known 
as  the  Transkeian  or  Native  Territories,  is  under  Re- 
sponsible Government,  the  portfolio  of  Native  Affairs  being 
held  by  the  Prime  Minister,  who  is  answerable  to  Parliament 
for  them. 

The  necessity  has  always  been  strongly  recognised  by 
that  Colony  for  elasticity  of  native  administration  in  those 
parts  where  the  population  is  dense  and  the  special 
conditions  seemed  to  warrant  it.  For  that  purpose,  legis- 
lation for  the  Transkeian  Territories  has  continuously  been 
exercised  by  Governor's  Proclamations,  unless  Parliament 
deems  it  urgent  to  extend  by  express  provision  the  appli- 
cation of  any  Act  beyond  the  Kei. 

In  that  sphere,  also,  greater  latitude  is  allowed  to 
magistrates  in  tolerating  native  customs,  and  adjudicating 
under  certain  circumstances  upon  dowry  questions  which 


I02 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


cannot  be  entertained  in  the  law  courts  of  the  Colony  proper 
where  native  law  and  custom  are  ignored.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  written  code  of  native  law. 

For  the  better  treatment  of  those  criminal  offences 
peculiar  to  local  native  conditions  a  Penal  Code  was 
specially  enacted  in  1886.  It  follows  the  lines  of  the  Statute 
and  Common  Law  of  the  Colony,  and  aims  at  finality.  It 
makes  specific  provision  for  the  constitution  and  summon- 
ing of  combined  courts  of  magistrates  with  extended 
powers,  and  for  the  employment  of  native  assessors,  with 
a  view  to  the  advantages  derivable  from  their  observations 
and  particularly  in  the  examination  of  witnesses.  This 
Criminal  Code  has  been  found  of  the  highest  value  not 
only  in  the  Cape  Colony  but  in  adjacent  native  territories 
where  the  spirit  of  it  has  been  embraced. 

We  have  thus  a  dividing  line  in  the  form  of  administra- 
tion, the  occasion  for  which  has  appealed  to  the  Government 
and  people  of  the  Cape  Colony.  No  such  administrative 
boundary  exists  so  clearly  in  any  other  colony,  for  the 
reason  that  segregation  elsewhere  is  not  so  distinctly 
marked.  But  it  plainly  indicates  the  importance  attached 
by  the  premier  Colony  to  the  necessity  of  affording  the 
natives  rapid  access  to  Courts  of  Justice,  inexpensive  means 
of  litigation,  and  a  sympathetic  method  of  government. 

In  the  Transkei,  as  in  the  Colony  proper,  the  head  of 
the  District  is  the  Resident  Magistrate,  whose  office  corre- 
sponds as  regards  purely  native  work  to  that  of  Native 
Commissioners  or  Assistant  Commissioners  in  certain  other 
territories  to  be  hereafter  referred  to.  But  these  Resident 
Magistrates  are  called  upon  to  perform  a  variety  of  work 
connected  with  Europeans  as  well.  They  are  alone  and 
entirely  responsible  to  Government  for  the  administration 
of  justice,  collection  of  taxes,  settlement  of  land  and  licence 
questions,  and  the  maintenance  of  order.  They  have  a 
few  minor  officials  and  police  for  district  use. 


IV]  NATAL — CODE  OF  NATIVE  LAW  103 

The  system  has  admittedly  worked  smoothly  and 
efficiently.  But  in  regard  to  the  designation  "  Resident 
Magistrates  "  it  must  be  observed  for  comparative  purposes 
that  the  bulk  of  the  work  is  native,  a  limited  number  only 
of  white  people  being  resident  for  trade,  industry,  and  other 
local  business  pursuits. 

In  the  Colony  of  Natal,  which  gained  Responsible 
Government  in  1893,  we  find  an  entirely  different  order  of 
things.  The  Secretary  for  Native  Affairs  is  a  Cabinet 
Minister. 

In  1891  a  Code  of  Native  Law  was  enacted  which,  subject 
to  exemption  under  certain  conditions,  applies  to  the 
whole  native  population  (Zululand  excepted,  where  the 
Code  is  recognised  without  being  legally  operative). 

By  an  Article  of  the  Code  no  native  falling  under  the 
operation  of  Native  Law  can  reside  in  the  Colony  unless 
he  becomes  a  member  of  a  tribe ;  and  a  tribe  is  defined 
as  a  community  of  not  less  than  twenty  kraals  under 
leadership  of  a  chief,  who  is  recognised  as  such  by  the 
Supreme  Chief. 

At  first  sight  it  appears  to  simplify  the  means  and 
methods  of  government  if  the  natives  as  a  whole  are 
brought  under  one  codified  law.  The  system  has  its 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  its  advocates  and  its 
opponents. 

The  administration  of  this  Code  and  the  government  of 
the  Natal  natives  are  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the  Governor 
of  the  Colony  is  ex-officio  Supreme  Chief  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. As  such  he  is  endowed  with  the  power  to  punish  by 
fine  or  imprisonment,  and  to  remove  or  depose  chiefs ;  he 
is  not  in  that  capacity  subject  to  the  Supreme  Court,  or 
any  other  Court  of  Law  in  the  Colony,  for  or  by  reason  of 
any  order,  proclamation,  act  or  matter  committed,  ordered, 
permitted,  or  done  by  him. 

Without    the  vesting  of   absolute    power    in  some 


104 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


exalted  individual  it  would  be  practically  impossible 
to  carry  out  satisfactorily  and  enforce  a  Code  of  this 
character.  Generally  speaking,  the  power  implied  is 
that  which  a  paramount  chief  formerly  enjoyed  under 
the  naked  tribal  system  before  it  became  absorbed  under 
civilised  government,  excepting,  of  course,  the  power  to  kill 
or  maltreat. 

The  Code  itself  is  comprehensive  in  construction,  and, 
after  the  definition  of  terms  and  of  the  powers  of  the 
Supreme  Chief  and  those  in  authority  under  him,  deals 
in  an  exhaustive  form  with :  the  duties,  powers,  and  privi- 
leges of  chiefs  and  headmen  in  their  relation  to  the  people  ; 
the  kraal  system  ;  status ;  inheritance  and  succession  ; 
marriages,  divorce  and  lobolo  ;  land  tenure  ;  courts,  civil 
and  criminal ;  procedure  ;  offences,  and  a  variety  of  other 
matters  which  are  essential  to  its  fulfilment. 

It  is  in  itself  a  most  commendable  instrument,  and  will 
always  stand  out  as  a  record  of  admirable  intention  on  the 
part  of  the  Natal  Government  and  Colonists  to  preserve 
to  the  native  people  what  was  good  in  their  own  primitive 
system,  and  what,  for  a  stage  in  their  history,  was  firmly 
believed  to  be  the  soundest  policy  in  reconciling  barbarians 
steeped  in  wild  tradition  to  civilised  conventionalities. 

At  one  time  officers  styled  Administrators  of  Native 
Law  were  selected  for  their  technical  knowledge,  and 
deputed  to  deal  with  cases  arising  under  the  Code  ;  but 
these  have  latterly  been  discontinued,  the  resident  magis- 
trates now  assuming  entire  responsibility  for  it.  Whilst  so 
doing,  they  are  vested,  as  in  the  Cape,  with  District  control 
affecting  both  Europeans  and  natives.  With  the  exception 
of  the  urban  areas,  however,  the  great  bulk  of  their  work 
pertains  to  natives. 

In  the  Orange  River  Colony  the  native  population  is 
fragmentary,  being  for  the  most  part  dispersed  amongst 
European  farmers  or  settled  in  towns. 


IV]         ORANGE  RIVER  COLONY  AND  TRANSVAAL  IO5 

Their  affairs  are  administered  under  the  common  law  of 
the  country.  There  is  a  Native  Adviser  of  the  Government 
stationed  at  the  capital,  with  a  small  assisting  staff,  and 
two  small  Reserves  superintended  by  special  officers. 
Native  law  finds  no  place,  except  that  it  is  tolerated  in  so 
far  as  the  natives  may  arrange  to  agree  to  it  amongst 
themselves,  and  effect  settlements  by  friendly  arbitration. 
The  resident  magistrates  adjudicate  upon  all  district 
matters. 

In  the  Transvaal  the  business  of  the  Native  Affairs 
Department  now  forms  a  principal  function  of  one  of 
the  Cabinet  Ministers  under  the  new  Constitution.  The 
administrative  system  assumes  a  shape  which  differs 
somewhat  from  that  of  previously  named  colonies,  yet 
retains  some  of  the  essentials  of  each.  In  effect  it  has 
a  standard  law  which,  while  not  prescribing  or  validating 
a  definite  code,  provides,  amongst  other  things,  for  the 
recognition  of  existing  native  law  and  custom  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  general  principles  of  civilisation,  or  not  in 
conflict  with  the  accepted  principles  of  justice.  This  law 
endows  the  Governor  with  power  to  exercise  over  chiefs 
and  natives  all  power  and  authority  which,  in  accordance 
with  native  custom,  are  given  to  any  paramount  chief 

It  will  be  observed,  therefore,  that  the  Governor  of  the 
Transvaal  has  apparently  a  position  closely  corresponding 
to  that  of  the  Governor  of  Natal,  without  the  aid  or 
encumbrance,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  a  code.  Yet  he  lacks 
what  the  Natal  legislators  evidently  considered  to  be  the 
backbone  of  their  Code,  viz.  that  the  Governor  should  be 
protected  by  the  indemnity  clause,  to  which  allusion  has 
been  made.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  clause,  the  Trans- 
vaal native  administration  suffers  from  the  risk  of  vexatious 
appeals,  and  is  hampered  in  consequence. 

What  native  law  and  custom  in  the  Transvaal  consists 
of  is,  then,  unwritten,  and  the  interpretation  of  it  is  left 


I06  ADMINISTRATION  [chap. 

to  the  knowledge  and  discretion  of  those  enjoined  to 
administer  it.  This  is  a  flexible  order  of  things  which 
adapts  itself  to  the  circumstances  of  the  country.  Though 
the  standard  law  is  faulty  in  some  respects,  it  is  by  no 
means  without  merit. 

Both  under  the  Republican  and  present  Governments 
in  the  Transvaal  the  policy  has  been  to  employ  as 
administrators  of  native  affairs,  in  those  districts  where 
the  natives  are  massed  in  any  considerable  number,  native 
Commissioners  and  sub-Commissioners,  whose  sole  and 
undivided  attention  is  devoted  to  that  class  of  work,  the 
Resident  Magistrates  acting  as  such  ex-officio,  as  landrosts 
did  formerly,  where  the  presence  of  expert  officers  can  be 
dispensed  with. 

In  Basutoland  and  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  the  basis 
of  administration  is  practically  identical.  These  territories 
are  governed  by  Resident  Commissioners,  under  direction 
of  the  High  Commissioner  for  South  Africa,  the  latter 
possessing  the  legislative  authority  which  is  exercised  by 
proclamation. 

The  chiefs  adjudicate  in  cases  between  native  and  native, 
with  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  Courts  of  Assistant  Com- 
missioners, and  of  final  appeal  to  the  Resident  Commis- 
sioner. 

To  these  Courts  all  cases  between  Europeans  and  natives 
are  brought,  unless,  by  mutual  consent  of  parties,  the 
Chiefs  Court  is  agreed  upon,  in  which  event  there  is  a 
proviso  that  no  European  who  shall  have  consented  to 
submit  himself  to  jurisdiction  of  a  native  chief  shall  have 
any  right  of  appeal  therefrom. 

The  Resident  Commissioner  is  supported  by  assistant 
Commissioners,  whom  he  may  summon  at  discretion  to 
form  Combined  Courts  for  the  trial  of  civil  or  criminal 
cases.  Power  is  also  given  to  call  in  native  assessors  for 
technical  purposes  relating  to  native  law  and  custom,  and 


iv]  RHODESIA  :  NATIVE  POLICE  lO/ 

for  assistance  in  hearing  cases,  but  the  finding  of  the  Court 
is  vested  exclusively  in  the  presiding  officer. 

In  each  of  these  territories  the  laws  of  the  Cape  Colony, 
up  to  a  certain  date,  are  proclaimed  to  be  in  force  as 
nearly  as  the  circumstances  of  the  country  will  permit. 

Southern  Rhodesia,  embracing  the  provinces  of  Matabele- 
land  and  Mashonaland,  is  governed  under  an  Order  in 
Council,  which  provides  for  a  Constitution  with  large 
powers  of  control  to  the  High  Commissioner  for  South 
Africa.  By  a  Proclamation  of  1891,  the  laws  of  the  Cape 
Colony  in  operation  prior  to  that  date  were  adopted,  and 
are  of  effect  as  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  country 
permit. 

The  Native  Department  is  administered  by  the  Secretary 
for  Native  Affairs,  the  duties  of  that  office  hitherto  having 
been  performed  by  the  Administrator-in-Chief  of  the 
Territory. 

The  two  provinces  are  each  under  control  of  a  chief 
Native  Commissioner,  appointed  under  approval  of  the 
High  Commissioner,  and  assistant  Commissioners,  all  of 
whom  give  their  undivided  attention  to  native  affairs. 

There  is  no  established  code  of  native  law,  but  due 
regard  is  had  to  those  laws  and  customs  to  which  the 
natives  are  habituated. 

Apart  from  the  European  officers  in  the  various 
colonies  and  possessions  referred  to,  a  force  of  native  police 
has  everywhere  proved  of  immense  benefit  to  the  Ad- 
ministrations. They  are  recruited  from  the  local  clans, 
with  whom  they  are  allied  in  blood  and  sympathy,  and 
act  as  mediums  of  communication  between  the  masses 
and  the  Government.  By  their  capacity  for  gaining 
intelligence,  and  by  loyal  behaviour,  they  have,  both 
in  times  of  trouble  and  of  peace,  been  factors  of  the 
highest  order  in  the  successful  control  of  our  subject 
races. 


io8 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


§  3.  Jurisdiction  and  Duties  of  European  Officers 
AND  Native  Chiefs 

Large  powers  are  conferred  upon  the  Resident  Com- 
missioners of  Basutoland  and  Bechuanaland  Protectorate. 
They  are  entitled  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in,  and  adjudicate 
upon,  all  causes,  suits,  and  actions  whatever,  civil  or 
criminal.  They  are  empowered  to  review  and  correct  the 
proceedings  of  all  Courts  or  officers  in  their  territories  in 
all  cases.  No  Supreme  Courts  are  vested  with  higher 
powers,  and  nowhere  perhaps  is  finality  so  cheaply  and 
rapidly  achieved. 

Their  assistant  Commissioners  have  also  a  wide  jurisdic- 
tion, which  is  defined,  not  by  law,  but  by  the  terms  of 
their  commissions.  It  is  thus  possible  to  give  to  ex- 
perienced officers  larger  powers  and  latitude  than  are 
given  to  juniors  undergoing  training. 

Resident  Magistrates  throughout  South  Africa  have 
limited  jurisdiction  not  exceeding,  as  a  rule,  the  power  to 
imprison  for  six  months,  sentences  in  excess  of  three 
months  being  subject  to  review  by  Judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  Extended  jurisdiction  is  given  in  some  colonies 
under  Cattle  Theft  Repression  Acts. 

Native  Commissioners  in  Rhodesia  exercise  the  powers 
conferred  upon  Magistrates.  It  is  specifically  laid  down 
in  respect  of  Rhodesia  that  native  Commissioners  shall 
control  the  natives  through  their  tribal  chiefs  and  headmen. 

Though  a  common  practice  to  do  this  in  other  territories, 
it  is  not  so  commanded  in  this  clear  and  distinct  form. 

In  the  Transvaal  native  Commissioners  have  much 
smaller  powers  of  jurisdiction  than  are  given  to  Resident 
Magistrates  or  to  the  Assistant  Commissioners  in  native 
territories. 

The  powers  conferred  upon  and  exercised  by  native 
chiefs  and  headmen  vary  considerably. 


IV] 


JURISDICTION  OF  CHIEFS 


tog 


In  Basutoland  and  Bechuanaland  it  is  competent  for  any 
native  chief  to  be  appointed  to  adjudicate  upon  and  try 
cases,  civil  and  criminal,  in  which  natives  are  concerned, 
and  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  such  manner  and  within  such 
limits  as  may  be  defined  by  rules  and  regulations  estab- 
lished by  the  Resident  Commissioner,  who  is  empowered  to 
make  such  rules.    Chiefs  are  so  appointed  and  so  act. 

In  Natal  chiefs  have  power  under  the  Code  to  try  all 
civil  cases  (divorces  excepted)  between  natives,  and  are 
entitled  to  claim  and  exercise  the  privileges  appertaining 
to  Courts  of  Law  in  respect  of  disobedience  of  their  orders 
or  contempt  of  their  persons  or  Courts,  and  may  for  such 
offences  impose  fines.  They  may  further  inflict  fines  for 
neglect  of  orders  which  they  as  deputies  of  the  Supreme 
Chief  enunciate  to  their  people. 

In  the  Transvaal,  chiefs  appointed  by  Government  are 
authorised  to  decide  civil  disputes  between  natives  under 
native  law,  and  also  civil  matters  referred  to  them  by  white 
people  against  natives. 

In  all  native  territories  obligations  are,  for  administrative 
purposes,  imposed  upon  chiefs  more  or  less  of  the  following 
description  :  maintenance  of  order  and  good  conduct  of 
tribe  ;  supply  of  men  for  defence  in  suppression  of  disorder  ; 
notification  of  crimes  and  offences,  suspicious  deaths  and 
epidemics ;  the  cognition  and  control  of  suspicious 
strangers  and  strange  cattle  ;  the  publication  of  laws  and 
orders. 

Upon  due  fulfilment  of  such  obligations  certain  privileges 
accrue,  principal  of  which  are  :  rank,  salaries,  court  fees  and 
the  right  to  respect  and  obedience  of  their  people,  which, 
though  not  made  compulsory  by  law,  is  almost  invariably 
accorded  when  the  conduct  of  the  chief  deserves  it. 

Headmen  in  a  lesser  degree  partake  of  the  powers, 
obligations,  and  privileges  of  chiefs  according  to  their 
family  influence,  capacity,  and  following.     They  are  not 


no 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


strictly  empowered  to  determine  cases  which  are,  never- 
theless, in  minor  matters  frequently  taken  to  them  for 
arbitrament  with  knowledge  and  consent  of  chiefs. 

But  in  Natal,  under  the  Code,  kraal  heads,  whose  status 
is  distinct  from  headmen,  have  important  duties :  as 
guardians  of  minors  ;  as  constables  within  kraal  precincts, 
having  power  to  arrest  summarily  persons  committing 
offences  against  person  or  property,  or  rioting,  or  intro- 
ducing intoxicating  liquors.  In  the  execution  of  their 
duties  they  may  inflict  corporal  punishment  for  the  purpose 
of  correction,  and  to  maintain  peace  and  order  in  their 
kraals,  and  for  any  other  just  cause.  In  this  respect  they 
are  given  a  power  which  is  denied  to  most  of  the 
magistrates  in  South  Africa.  ^ 

§  4.   Councils  as  an  Aid  to  Administration 

In  the  foregoing  pages  an  outline  has  been  sketched  of 
the  general  and  varied  forms  of  native  administration  and 
the  personnel  employed  to  carry  it  out. 

It  will  now  be  pertinent  to  consider  briefly  in  what 
degree  the  natives  share  in  it  by  means  of  Councils  or 
consultation. 

We  have  seen  that  in  certain  territories  they  are  allowed 
to  determine  cases  in  Courts  of  their  own,  to  be  called  in 
as  assessors  in  higher  Courts,  and  to  be  utilised  as  political 
police. 

In  1894  a  great  advance  was  made  by  the  Cape  Colony, 
always  the  pioneer  in  matters  concerning  native  progress, 
by  passing,  at  the  instance  of  the  late  Mr.  Rhodes,  the  Glen 
Grey  Act. 

That  Act  was  made  to  operate  in  certain  Districts  of 
the  Transkei  which  lent  themselves  to  the  prospect  of  a 
successful  experiment. 

The  District  of  Glen  Grey  comprises  the  tract  of  country 


IV] 


GLEN  GREY  ACT 


lit 


lying  between  the  Divisions  of  Queenstown,  Wodehouse, 
and  Indwe,  and  contained  a  considerable  native  population, 
which  had  established  itself  in  locations  and  become 
accustomed  to  individual  land  tenure  under  the  system 
inaugurated  by  Governor  Sir  George  Grey,  who  allocated 
lands  after  the  Kafir  war  of  1852. 

The  Act  may  be  summarised  to  involve  in  principle  : 

(1)  Individual  title  to  land  ; 

(2)  Recognition  of  the  law  of  primogeniture  ; 

(3)  A  form  of  local  self-government  by  means  of 

Councils  ; 

(4)  Power  to  levy  taxes  and  vote  expenditure. 

It  had  long  been  manifest  that,  although  in  Kaffraria  the 
great  mass  of  natives  clung  tenaciously  to  their  traditional 
habits  and  superstitions,  and  were  partial  to  the  use  of  red 
clay  as  a  cosmetic,  a  numerous  section  of  them  were  fast 
rising  above  it,  and  were  winning,  by  their  intellectual 
capacity,  character,  and  persistency,  the  esteem  and  con- 
fidence of  the  Magistrates  and  Government.  It  was  to 
them  that  the  Act  was  designed  chiefly  to  apply,  with  the 
idea  that  they  in  turn  would  lead  the  red  heathen  in  the 
direction  of  higher  ideals. 

By  lodging  with  a  body  of  intelligent  natives  the  power 
and  responsibility  to  conduct  a  portion  at  any  rate  of 
their  own  affairs,  under  the  guidance  of  European  officers, 
a  large  burden  was  shifted  from  the  shoulders  of  Govern- 
ment, and  it  lay  with  those  so  endowed  to  suggest  changes 
for  betterment  and  for  development  on  their  own  lines  of 
thought. 

With  this  general  idea,  the  Act  provides  for  : 

{a)  A  General  Council,  consisting  of  members  elected  by 

each  District,  the  Government  nominating  a  proportion, 

with  the  District  Resident  Magistrates  as  ex-officio  members  ; 

the  whole  presided  over  by  the  Chief  Magistrate  of  the 

Transkei. 


112  ADMINISTRATION  [chap. 

(^)  District  Councils,  composed  of  men  nominated  partly 
by  the  District  Headmen  and  partly  by  Government,  with 
the  Resident  Magistrate  as  Chairman. 

To  these  Councils  are  committed  many  of  the  duties 
which  in  other  parts  devolve  entirely  upon  the  Administra- 
tion. It  contemplates  to  give  the  native  people  a  direct 
interest  in  their  own  affairs,  to  educate  them  to  the 
performance  of  public  work,  and  to  teach  them  to  bear, 
and  remedy  if  they  can,  grievances  which  were  formerly 
showered  upon  their  rulers. 

It  is  claimed  with  justification  that  these  Councils  have 
proved  a  success  in  the  Transkei  in  lightening  the  burden 
of  Government  and  broadening  the  native  mind.  That 
they  have  served  a  good  purpose  in  easing  the  adminis- 
trative machine  all  evidence  goes  to  show. 

In  1903  a  Select  Committee  of  the  Cape  House  of 
Assembly  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  working  and 
administration  of  the  Glen  Grey  Act  reported,  inter  alia,  as 
follows : 

"  Speaking  generally,  ....  your  Committee  are  con- 
vinced that  the  operations  of  the  Act  have  been,  as  they 
were  intended  to  be,  most  beneficial  to  the  natives  con- 
cerned. Individual  tenure  and  local  self-government 
have  done  much,  and  will  in  the  future  do  more,  to  lead 
the  aboriginal  natives  in  the  path  of  improvement." 

But,  while  admitting  the  beneficial  effect  of  this  Act, 
in  so  far  as  it  has  been  applied  in  a  limited  way  in  the  Cape 
Colony,  it  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  its  application  could 
(in  a  summary  way)  be  made  general  in  South  Africa, 
where  the  circumstances  are  so  varied  and  the  environment 
not  always  favourable.  The  Transkei  lends  itself  to  the 
idea  in  a  way  that  cannot  easily  be  followed. 

Basutoland,  however,  has  reached  a  stage  when  the  Con- 
stitution, the  people,  and  the  country  combine  to  favour  the 
adoption  of  the  Council  system. 


XV] 


BASUTOLAND  COUNCIL 


There  are  obstacles,  in  that  it  has  a  paramount  chief 
and  powerful  chieftains,  all  of  whom  are  bound  to  be 
opposed  in  spirit  to  any  scheme  calculated  to  dispossess  or 
lessen  the  power  they  enjoy. 

Former  paramount  chiefs  foresaw  the  internal  dangers 
that  might  arise  as  the  native  mind  grew  and  became 
restless  under  the  restraints  of  vassalage,  and  advocated  in 
their  declining  years  the  establishment  of  a  Council  with 
influence  sufficient  to  control  unruly  passions. 

Yet  in  their  own  lifetimes  they  hesitated  to  press  for  it 
in  such  a  way  as  might  lead  to  the  curbing  of  their  own 
powers. 

Nevertheless,  a  Council  has,  after  the  proposal  was  digested 
for  twenty  years,  been  recently  formed.  It  consists  of 
about  100  representatives,  selected  partly  by  the  nation  and 
partly  by  Government. 

Its  principal  functions  are  to  ventilate  opinions  and 
grievances  and  confer  with  the  Administration.  One  of 
its  early  acts  was  to  frame  a  code  for  the  guidance  of 
chiefs  in  respect  of,  amongst  other  things  :  the  rights  of 
individuals  ;  the  use  and  obligations  of  land ;  Court  pro- 
cedure, succession,  and  inheritance. 

This  Council  has,  happily,  avoided  attempts  at  drastic 
change,  and,  catching  the  temper  of  the  people,  has  tended 
in  a  useful  way  to  cultivate  their  imagination  and  promote 
good  order. 

It  may  have  a  great  future  as  the  people  progress  on 
temperate  lines,  and,  while  bringing  to  the  Administration 
the  support  of  public  opinion  and  suggestion,  serves  as  an 
object-lesson  to  South  Africa. 

§  5.   The  Future 
It  remains  now  before  closing  this  chapter  to  record  a 
few  thoughts  which  suggest  themselves  upon  a  subject 
which  affords  so  much  food  for  reflection. 

8 


114 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


No  doubt  exists  in  the  minds  of  those  acquainted  with 
the  comparative  conditions  and  affairs  of  the  natives  of 
South  Africa  to-day  that  they  are  going  through  the  trying 
ordeal  of  change.  How  they  will  emerge  from  it  remains 
to  be  seen. 

Under  the  influences  of  Christian  teaching,  education, 
and  contact  with  civilisation,  the  minds  of  all  are  opening, 
and  the  intelligence  of  a  good  many  is  ripening.  They 
are  yearning  for  sympathy,  and  are  leaning  hopefully  upon 
their  European  rulers  for  assistance  and  guidance  in  their 
development. 

It  is  a  moment  when  the  efforts  and  aspirations  of 
those  who  are  struggling  to  improve  may  with  advantage 
to  all  concerned  be  directed  upon  lines  suitable  to  their 
environment. 

Sectional  opposition  may  always  be  expected,  and  will 
be  offered  to  any  action  designed  to  enlarge  their  status 
beyond  that  of  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water. 
But  signs  are  not  wanting  from  all  quarters  of  the  sub- 
continent that  their  rulers  and  the  leaders  of  civilised 
thought  are  ready,  indeed  anxious,  to  examine  native 
problems  most  carefully,  and  to  extend  to  them  fair  and 
generous  consideration. 

But  no  amount  of  fair  consideration  can  alter  the  fact 
that,  although  the  native  races  are  closely  allied  in 
character  and  language,  they  are  suffering  at  our  hands 
from  a  bewildering  variety  of  forms  of  administration. 

The  question  of  South  African  Federation  is  visibly 
being  forced  into  the  region  of  practical  politics.  It  forms 
a  principal  topic  upon  many  public  platforms.  Before 
Federation  becomes  a  reality,  the  assimilation  in  some 
preliminary  degree  of  laws  and  systems  for  the  manage- 
ment of  natives  must  engage  the  profound  attention  of  the 
Colonial  Governments  and  people. 

That  it  will  be  a  delicate  task  to  harmonise  throughout 


iv]  CHIEFTAINSHIP  115 

South  Africa  the  direction  of  Native  Affairs  and  establish 
uniformity  of  practice  is  unquestionable. 

Prominent  amongst  the  difficulties  to  confront  those 
who  first  deliberate  is  the  factor  of  chieftainship  which  still 
retains  a  powerful  hold  upon  the  natives  and  continues 
to  be  intermittently  employed  as  a  means  of  government. 

As  time  goes  on  the  aboriginals  will,  as  a  result  of 
education  and  enlightenment,  more  and  more  manifest 
their  dislike  to  the  old  barbarous  habits  and  customs,  and 
fret  under  the  yoke  of  their  chiefs,  who  will  gradually 
disappear  from  the  stage  as  actors  and  be  no  more  seen. 

The  chiefs  will,  however,  during  the  feudal  history  of 
the  tribes  have  performed  great  services,  entitling  them 
to  the  respect  and  devotion  which  the  great  bulk  of  their 
followers  have  always  cherished  towards  them. 

There  are  many  who  believe  that  no  real  progress  can  be 
made  unless  and  until  the  chiefs  are  summarily  deposed.  But, 
if  an  apology  for  the  past  is  necessary,  the  whole  lesson  of 
history  is  to  teach  us  that  the  early  condition  of  all  nations 
has  been  characterised  by  personal  and  autocratic  leadership, 
and  that  evolution,  to  be  sound,  must  proceed  by  stages 
admitting  of  healthy  and  calm  growth  ;  it  may  be  retarded, 
and  its  course  deflected  by  unsuitable  treatment  and  haste. 

Abundant  signs  have  been  given  that  the  authority  of 
chiefs  is  resented  by  sections  in  every  colony  who  are 
either  led  by  native  agitators  to  resist  it,  or  are  persuaded 
by  law  agents  to  defy  it  by  appeal  to  the  superior  Courts 
where  political  expediency  is  not  held  in  favour,  and  where 
there  is  always  an  inclination  to  strike  at  systems  inimical 
to  European  law  and  practice. 

The  young  men,  too,  chafe  under  customs  which  render 
them  liable  to  be  sent  out  to  labour  at  the  instance 
of  chiefs,  who  derive  pay  from  recruiting  agencies  for  each 
man  supplied,  and  who  compel  them  to  perform  retainers 
duty  in  cultivating  the  lands. 


Il6  ADMINISTRATION  [chap. 

All  this  tends  to  shake  the  influence  of  chiefs  and  break 
it  down. 

But  it  is  wiser  to  let  the  leaven  of  free  thought  do  its 
own  work  than  to  endanger  the  peace  by  violent  changes 
that  might  give  to  chieftainship  a  common  cause  to  unite 
in  resisting  them.  Hitherto  the  common  cause  has  been 
discreetly  avoided. 

In  disturbing  the  influence  of  chiefs  over  their  people  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  with  it  goes  the  whole  chain  of 
responsibility  which  has  proved  so  invaluable  in  the  past 
in  maintaining  order,  suppressing  crime,  and  preserving 
useful  control  over  wild  people  capable  of  becoming  easily 
excited  to  acts  of  rebellion. 

It  may  be  taken  as  fairly  assured  that  any  general 
adoption  of  the  Natal  Code  system  is  regarded  as  un- 
desirable and  unlikely,  as  being  retrogressive  in  character 
and  subversive  of  progress.  Moreover,  the  powers  given  to 
chiefs  and  headmen  under  that  code  cannot  be  reconciled 
with  modern  law  and  practice. 

Its  opponents  urge  with  some  force  that,  in  trying  to 
save  trouble  and  simplify  administration  by  codifying 
native  law,  the  true  development  of  the  aboriginals  has 
been  hindered  and  sacrificed.  The  controversy  is  one  of 
the  highest  moment,  affecting  as  it  does  so  vitally  the 
whole  order  of  evolution. 

It  is  of  paramount  importance  so  long  as  the  rude  laws 
and  customs  of  the  natives  are  suffered  that  they  should  con- 
tinue to  have  not  only  minor  courts  of  their  own,  but  special 
courts  and  qualified  officers  devoted  to  the  management  of 
their  affairs.  These  officers  require  power,  assimilated  if 
possible  in  all  territories,  to  hear  and  determine  native  cases 
with  promptness  and  finality  and  at  little  cost  to  the  parties. 

If  one  point  was  brought  out  more  significantly  than 
another  during  the  evidence  before  the  late  South  African 
Native  Affairs  Commission  it  was  that,  under  existing  con- 


IV]  SPECIAL  NATIVE  OFFICERS  II7 

ditions  and  systems,  it  is  essential,  in  the  interests  of  peace 
and  contentment,  to  provide  for  the  interpretation  on 
appeal  of  native  laws  by  officers  in  authority  who  enjoy 
the  confidence  of  the  natives.  A  remarkable  illustration  of 
the  urgent  necessity  of  this  was  furnished  in  the  Cape 
Colony,  where  in  one  large  District  a  magistrate  had 
for  over  twenty  years,  with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of 
Government,  done  magnificent  work  in  settling  native 
cases  by  pure  arbitration,  all  parties  agreeing  to  be  bound 
by  his  decision  in  the  absence  of  a  Court  lawfully  estab- 
lished to  deal  with  such  matters. 

The  preamble  to  the  Transvaal  Standard  Law  enacted  by 
the  Republic  in  1885  may  here  be  quoted  as  embodying 
the  useful  principle  which  has  largely  guided  South  Africa 
in  the  past.    It  recites  as  follows  : 

"  Whereas  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  the  better  treat- 
ment and  management  of  the  natives  by  placing  them 
under  special  supervision,  and  for  the  proper  administration 
of  justice  amongst  them  until  they  shall  be  able  to  under- 
stand and  appreciate  such  duties  and  responsibilities  as 
they  may  reasonably  be  deemed  capable  of  undertaking  in 
obedience  to  the  general  law.  .  .  ." 

It  may  be  that  we  are  close  to  the  parting  of  the  ways  ; 
that  the  toleration  of  native  law  and  custom  is  nearing  its 
end  and  that  chieftainship,  as  a  recognised  channel  for  the 
conduct  of  native  affairs,  will  be  replaced  by  magistrates 
and  native  commissioners. 

These  officers  would  in  such  case  have  to  take  up  a 
heavy  burden,  and  upon  their  character  and  methods  much 
would  depend.  No  doubt  they  would  as  far  as  possible 
follow  the  best  traditions  of  the  old  order  as  regards 
paternal  care.  But  they  would  require  to  be  strengthened 
by  an  approved  policy  which  empowered  them  to  establish 
district  councils  for  consultation  and  afforded  them  a  distinct 
aim  in  the  process  of  reconciling  the  natives  to  the  change. 


Ii8 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap. 


The  change  will  be  expensive,  as  the  chiefs  now  do  so 
much  police  and  other  work  without  pay  or  support ;  but 
it  will  have  the  effect  of  bringing  the  native  population 
directly  under  the  Common  Law  of  the  country  as  applied 
to  Europeans. 

We  may  be  presumed  to  be  drifting  fast  in  that  direction 
as  a  solution  of  the  problem  to  be  faced  by  those  who 
discuss  Federation  when  they  endeavour  to  determine  how 
to  arrive  at  uniformity  of  administration. 

Meanwhile  there  is  need  of  the  utmost  caution  not  to 
provoke  unrest  and  discontent  by  rooting  up  prevailing 
systems  until  the  native  mind  is  prepared  and  effective 
substitutes  are  in  readiness. 

When  the  curtain  falls  upon  native  law  and  custom  the 
natives  must,  in  the  absence  of  direct  representation,  be 
heard  through  Councils  similar  in  character  to  those  now 
established  in  the  Transkei  and  Basutoland.  They  will 
tend  to  facilitate  administration  by  bringing  into  close 
and  sympathetic  touch  the  dominant  races  who  are  re- 
sponsible and  the  weaker  races  who  are  concerned  in  their 
own  progress  and  betterment. 

Note. — Since  the  above  was  written  and  sent  to  the 
printer  a  report,  the  latest  of  its  kind,  has  been  issued  of 
the  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission,  to  which  a  long  and 
comprehensive  list  of  subjects  affecting  Native  Affairs  in 
Natal  was  referred  for  inquiry. 

Further,  in  the  Gazette  of  January  21,  1908,  is  published 
a  thoughtful  memorandum  upon  the  report  by  Mr.  S.  O. 
Samuelson,  Secretary  for  Native  Affairs  in  Natal. 

While  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  review  such 
papers,  a  few  remarks  upon  such  recent  documents,  upon 
which  legislation  is  now  being  based,  may  be  offered. 

The  Report  endorses  certain  of  the  convictions  which 
find  brief  expression  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  chapter 
and,  amongst  other  things,  it  says  : 


IV]  NATAL  COMMISSION  II9 

(1)  Speaking  of  the  tribal  system  :  "  With  a  full  confession 
of  all  its  defects,  political,  moral,  and  social,  and  as  a  bar  to 
individual  progress,  to  attempt  to  sweep  it  away  would  be 
suicidal,  and  lead  to  worse  evils  than  now  surround  it." 

(2)  The  direct  control  of  the  natives  in  general  should 
be  entrusted  to  carefully  selected  officers  imbued  with  an 
intense  desire  for  the  welfare  of  the  people. 

(3)  Elasticity  of  native  management  is  essential ;  the 
course  of  natural  evolution  should  not  be  diverted. 

(4)  The  natives  are  being  over-administered  and  are 
ignorant  of  many  of  the  laws  which  affect  themselves. 

(5)  Native  administrators  should  be  more  paternal  than 
official :  the  seat  and  centre  of  authority  should  be  visible, 
permanent,  and  accessible. 

(6)  The  magistrates  are  trammelled  by  law  and  rule. 

(7)  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Supreme  Chief  should 
be  clearly  defined,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he  should  be 
free  from  review  or  interference. 

(8)  It  should  be  an  objective  to  establish  Village  Settle- 
ments under  an  inceptive  form  of  self-government,  and  to 
issue  conditional  land  titles,  in  selected  areas  (somewhat 
on  the  Glen  Grey  system). 

Upon  the  subject  of  the  retention  of  the  Code  of  Native 
Law,  the  Commission  advances  no  pronounced  opinion  of 
its  own,  beyond  saying  that  a  study  of  it  by  experts  will, 
in  the  light  of  experience  and  changed  circumstances, 
doubtless  lead  to  several  alterations,  and  that  there  is  need 
for  amendment.  It  quotes,  however,  "  an  almost  unanimous 
expression  of  opinion  by  magistrates  and  others  that  there 
should  be  a  Code,  and  that,  to  secure  uniformity,  it  should 
have  the  force  of  law,  and  be  extended  to  Zululand." 

Mr.  Samuelson  dissents  warmly,  for  reasons  given,  from 
some  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Commission,  deeming 
them  to  be  contradictory  in  themselves  and  calculated  to 
make  confusion  worse. 


120 


ADMINISTRATION 


[chap.  IV 


He  takes  particular  exception  to  that  part  which 
suggests  the  appointment  of  native  Commissioners,  "  who 
should  be  used  to  supplant  the  chiefs.  .  .  .  and  thus 
gradually  help  with  other  agencies  to  break  down  the 
tribal  system  " — a  system  which  is  previously  regarded  by 
the  Commission  as  "  a  necessary  institution,  indispensable 
for  the  government  of  the  natives."  But,  while  feelingly 
directing  attention  to  this  apparent  inconsistency,  he  adds 
that,  in  his  opinion,  the  Report  will  do  more  harm  than  good 
as  calculated  to  embitter  both  sections  of  the  community. 

I  do  not  share  this  gloomy  view,  believing  that  there  is 
much  good  to  be  derived  from  Commissions  like  this, 
which  not  only  place  prominently  before  the  public  the 
position  of  local  affairs,  but  help  to  form  and  educate 
public  opinion  and  to  cultivate  sympathetic  consideration 
for  the  natives. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  views  of  any  Commission 
will  command  entire  concurrence  and  support,  seeing  how 
much  opinion  is  divided  on  what  is  admittedly  a  complex 
question. 

As  an  illustration  of  administrative  anomaly  at  a  time 
when  unification  of  policy  is  desired  on  all  sides,  we  have 
the  Natal  Commission  recommending  the  appointment  of 
Native  Commissioners  separate  from  the  Magistracy,  whilst 
at  the  same  moment  a  similar  grade  of  officers  has,  prin- 
cipally from  motives  of  economy,  been  abolished  in  the 
Transvaal  after  having  done  sound  political  work  amongst 
the  natives  of  that  Colony. 

It  is  only  by  anomalies  of  this  character  being  brought 
to  light  that  a  view  of  the  situation  can  be  properly  seen. 
If  it  leads  to  temperate  discussion,  so  much  the  better. 

Native  Commissioners  are  essential  as  part  of  the  system 
in  some  colonies  and  protectorates.  It  serves  no  useful 
purpose  to  condemn  them  as  a  whole  because  they  do  not 
appear  well-placed  in  other  parts. 


CHAPTER  V 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES 

§  I.  Introductory 

This  chapter  describes  briefly  the  legal  position  or  status 
of  the  natives  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  whites. 
The  subject,  which  has  many  branches,  can  be  discussed 
here  only  imperfectly.  Theoretically,  three  very  distinct 
ways  of  treating  the  aboriginal  natives  of  a  country 
occupied  and  governed  by  a  white  population  may  be 
conceived.  They  may  be  treated  as  if  they  had  no  rights, 
a  course  rarely,  if  ever — certainly  never  avowedly — taken 
in  modern  times.  They  may  be  treated  as  a  people  apart, 
with  laws  of  their  own,  to  which  only  they  are  subject ; 
the  method  adopted  by  most  civilised  conquerors  in  recent 
times  towards  subject  races — a  course  which  presents  many 
advantages,  and  which  can  consistently  be  followed  when 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  live  apart  and  retain  their  native 
laws  and  customs  unimpaired,  but  one  which  becomes 
more  and  more  difficult  as  their  original  social  organisation 
breaks  up  or  the  force  of  their  own  laws  is  weakened. 
Or  the  aboriginal  population  may  be  treated  exactly  as 
the  European  population — a  policy  generally  repugnant  to 
people  of  European  descent  associated  with  a  black  race.^ 

In  no  country  probably  have  any  of  these  courses  been 
strictly  adhered  to.     Generally  there  have   been  com- 

'  See  paper  by  Dr.  Hermann  Hesse  as  to  the  course  pursued  by  the 
German  Government  in  their  West  African  colonies.  "  Zeitschrift  fur 
Kolonialpolitik,  Kolonialrecht,"  etc.,  1904,  p.  190. 

121 


122  LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES  [chap. 

promises  and  mixtures  of  all  of  these  policies.  Such  has 
been,  at  all  events,  the  case  in  South  Africa.  All  the 
colonies  have  not  acted  alike.  The  same  colony  has  not 
always  followed  the  same  principle  at  different  times.  In 
fact,  no  consistent  course  has  been  followed.  In  South 
African  legislation  there  are  examples  of  the  second  and 
third  courses  above  described,  and  there  have  been  many 
compromises  of  various  kinds. 

§  2.  Definitions  of  Natives 

Though  the  South  African  colonies  have  followed  no 
very  consistent  course,  it  will  appear  that  there  is  an 
approximation  towards  certain  types  of  legislation.  One 
of  the  first  fruits  of  the  federation  may  be  to  bring  about 
similarity  of  policy  in  regard  to  a  matter  as  to  which 
there  has  been  notable  diversity. 

Who  are  to  be  regarded  as  natives  ?  This  question 
does  not  admit  of  a  sure  and  simple  answer.  The  mixture 
of  races  has  given  rise  to  one  set  of  difficulties.  The 
fact  that  certain  persons  have  wholly  or  gradually  with- 
drawn from  tribal  life  gives  rise  to  another  class  of 
difficulties.  Each  colony  has  looked  at  the  question  from 
its  own  point  of  view.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
statutory  definitions  of  natives  are  not  at  all  in  agreement. 

In  Cape  Colony  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  general 
definition  of  "  native,"  but  for  the  purposes  of  special  Acts 
there  are  definitions.  Thus  the  definition  in  Act  No.  40, 
1902,  as  to  native  locations,  is  :  "  Any  Kafir,  Fingo,  Zulu, 
Mosuto,  Damara,  Hottentot,  Bushman,  Bechuana,  Koranna, 
or  any  other  aboriginal  native  of  South  or  Central  Africa, 
but  shall  not  include  any  native  while  serving  in  any  of 
His  Majesty's  ships  and  while  in  uniform."  For  the 
purposes  of  the  Liquor  Amendment  Act  (Act  No.  28, 
1898,  sect.  5),  "native"  is  defined  as  meaning  any  Kafir, 
Fingo,  Basuto,  Damara,  Hottentot,  Bushman,  or  Koranna. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  NATIVES 


123 


In  Natal  also  the  definitions  vary.  As  the  Natal  Native 
Affairs  Commission  remarks  (p.  19) :  "  A  definition  has 
been  attempted,  in  one  way  or  another,  by  some  seven 
or  eight  statutes,  with  a  resultant  conflict  of  opinions  and 
confusion  of  ideas  as  to  what  persons  or  classes  fall  within 
the  definitions  given."  The  Firearms  and  Ammunition 
Act  of  Natal  (Act  No.  i,  1906)  says  :  " '  Native '  means  and 
includes  all  members  of  the  aboriginal  races  or  tribes  of 
Africa,  whether  exempted  or  not  from  the  operation  of 
Native  law,  and  Griquas  and  Hottentots,  and  any  person 
whose  parents  or  either  of  them  come  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  Natives,  Griquas,  or  Hottentots,  and  the  descendants 
of  any  such  person."  According  to  the  Code  of  Native 
Law  for  Natal  (Art.  12),  "  the  word  '  Native '  shall  be  deemed 
to  mean  and  to  include  any  member  of  the  aboriginal 
races  or  tribes  of  Africa  south  of  the  Equator." 

In  the  Transvaal,  by  Proclamation  No.  37,  1901  (Passes 
Law),  as  amended  by  Ordinance  No.  27  of  1903,  native 
shall  mean  "  a  male  person  over  fourteen  years  of  age  both 
of  whose  parents  are  members  of  some  aboriginal  race  or 
tribe  of  Africa  "  ;  under  Law  No.  24  of  1895,  "  Any  person 
of  any  kind  belonging  to  or  being  a  descendant  of  any 
of  the  Native  races  in  South  Africa."  The  Liquor  Law  of 
the  Transvaal  (No.  32,  1902)  applies  to  "  coloured  persons," 
a  vague  and  wide  phrase,  which  includes  Indians  (Bosch  v. 
Rex,  1904,  T.S.  p.  57).  Under  the  Transvaal  Immorality 
Act  (Ord.  46,  1903,  s.  19  (s))  native  means  a  person 
manifestly  belonging  to  any  of  the  native  or  coloured  races 
of  Africa,  Asia,  America,  or  St.  Helena. 

In  the  Orange  River  Colony,  by  Law  No.  8  of  1893,  s.  8  : 
"  coloured  person  or  coloured  persons  "  include  "  a  man  or 
men  as  well  as  a  woman  or  women  above  the  age  or 
estimated  age  of  sixteen  years  of  any  native  tribe  in  South 
Africa,  and  also  all  coloured  persons  and  all  who,  in 
accordance  with  law  or  custom,  are  called  coloured  persons, 


124  LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES  [chap. 

or  are  treated  as  such,  of  whatever  race  or  nationality  they 
may  be  " — obviously  a  very  vague  definition. 

In  Rhodesia,  by  Regulation  No.  240,  1898  (sect.  3), 
native  means  "  any  person  being,  or  being  a  descendant  of, 
an  aboriginal  native  of  Africa." 

In  some  legislation  {e.g.  Natal  Intoxicating  Liquor 
Act,  1896,  Art.  4)  there  are  added  the  words,  "Including 
liberated  Africans,  commonly  called  '  Amandawo.'  " 

Outside  the  terms  of  these  statutes  and  the  like,  there 
is  an  ill-defined  power  of  treating  persons  with  certain 
racial  characteristics  as  "natives."  We  quote  from  a 
well-known  text-writer :  "  Apart  from  the  statutory  de- 
finitions of  a  native  it  has  been  laid  down — and  the  decision 
is  fully  applicable  throughout  South  Africa — that  a  person 
whose  general  appearance  presents  the  leading  character- 
istics of  an  aboriginal  native  might  be  taken  for  such,  even 
though  it  may  be  shown  that  there  are  traces  of  European 
blood  in  such  a  person."  (Reg.  v.  Willet,  12  C.T.R.  238  ; 
"  Nathan's  Digest,"  p.  25 19,  n.).  In  Reg.  v.  Willet  the  ques- 
tion was  whether  one  Rose  Coetzee  was  an  aboriginal  native 
within  the  meaning  of  "native"  in  Notice  No.  241  of  1901  as 
to  selling  intoxicating  liquor  to  an  aboriginal  native.  Coetzee 
gave  evidence  that  her  mother  was  a  "  bastard  Hottentot " 
and  her  father  a  Boer,  and  that  they  were  married.  There 
was  medical  evidence  that  she  "  appears  to  have  some 
European  blood."  The  conviction  by  the  magistrate  was 
upheld,  De  Villiers,  C.J.,  remarking :  "  The  Court  has 
decided  that  an  admixture  of  European  blood  does  not 
prevent  a  person  from  being  regarded  as  an  aboriginal 
native  if  the  features  of  the  aboriginal  predominate."  With 
such  vague  tests  as  the  above  to  apply,  some  members  of 
the  same  family  might  be  regarded  as  natives,  some  not. 

Obviously  there  has  been  extreme  difficulty  in  finding 
a  definition  applicable  to  persons  very  unlike,  of  different 
degrees  of  culture  and   intelligence  and  civilisation — a 


EXEMPTED  NATIVES 


125 


definition  which  will  take  account  of  racial  intermixtures 
as  well  as  degrees  of  culture.  The  lines  of  colour  and 
those  of  culture  do  not  necessarily,  or  in  fact,  coincide. 
The  existence  of  these  differences  and  the  consequent 
uncertainty  as  to  the  legal  position  of  many  persons  have 
brought  evil  with  them.  A  large  number  of  persons,  and 
some  of  those  most  inclined  to  adopt  civilised  life,  are 
left  in  an  ambiguous  condition.  The  continuance  of 
these  differences  must  strengthen  the  impression  among 
the  natives  that  they  are  dealt  with  in  an  arbitrary  way. 
In  the  same  category,  and  subject  to  the  same  disabilities, 
are  placed  persons  with  nothing  in  common  but  their 
colour;  sometimes  persons  without  even  that  common  trait. 

§  3.  Exempted  Persons 

It  was  long  recognised  that  many  natives  could  not 
with  propriety  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
ordinary  raw  Kafir.  Of  natives  falling  within  the 
above  definitions,  many  are  exempted  from  the  operation 
of  native  law.  The  manner  in  which,  and  the  conditions 
upon  which,  such  exemption  is  obtained  vary  in  the 
colonies.  The  grounds  of  exemption  differ  much.  For 
the  most  part  they  are  based  on  educational  qualifications. 
In  Cape  Colony  every  duly  registered  voter  of  whatever 
nationality,  tribe,  or  colour,  is  so  exempt.  So  are  persons 
with  certain  educational  qualifications.  In  the  other 
colonies  application  for  such  exemptions  must  be  made. 

There  are  many  complaints  as  to  the  position  of  the 
exempted  native.  He  believes  that  he  is  unfairly  treated  ; 
that  while  asking  for  bread  he  has  been  given  a  stone. 
One  disqualification  is  particularly  resented.  The  Natal 
legislation  of  1865  formed  a  special  class  of  "exempted 
natives  " — i.e.  natives  who  were  not  subject  to  native  law. 
The  Courts  of  that  Colony  have  decided  that  the  children 
of  those  exempted  under  the  Act  of  1865  (Law  28)  are 


126 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES 


[CHAP. 


not  in  the  same  position  as  their  parents — a  remarkable 
anomaly  (Mahludi  v.  Rex,  26  N.L.R.  p.  298) ;  one  strange 
result  being  that  in  the  sajne  family  there  may  be  children 
born  prior  to  the  grant  of  the  letters  who  are  exempt 
and  children  born  after  who  are  not.  The  Court  in 
arriving  at  this  conclusion  said  :  "  The  effect  of  the  law 
is  to  give  exemption  from  the  operation  of  native  law,  as 
known  and  administered  in  the  Colony  of  Natal,  and  not 
to  give  the  exempted  native  the  full  status  or  rights  of  a 
European  subject.  .  .  .  The  exempted  native  is  still 
subject  to  the  special  laws  which  apply  only  to  natives 
and  are  not  part  of  what  is  called  native  law.  The 
exempted  native  is  still  disentitled  to  use  the  electoral 
franchise  just  as  much  as  the  unexempted  native  is  ;  he  is 
not  allowed  to  carry  firearms  or  to  obtain  ammunition  ; 
he  is  not  allowed  to  obtain  liquor.  For  exemption  from 
these  and  other  laws  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  it 
is  still  necessary  for  him  to  be  relieved  either  by  enactment 
or  by  the  special  authority  of  the  Governor  of  the  Colony  ; 
and  whenever  exemption  from  the  provisions  of  these  special 
laws  is  granted  it  is  always  an  exemption  which  applies 
only  to  an  individual  and  not  to  members  of  the  family  " 
(pp.  315,  316).  "  The  exempted  natives  feel  very  strongly 
the  position  in  which  children  born  subsequent  to  their 
parents'  letters  have  been  placed  by  recent  decisions  of  the 
Court,  and  there  is  much  force  in  their  plea  for  uniformity 
in  the  family  "  (Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission  Report, 
p.  2 1 ).  The  same  would  seem  to  be  true  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony  and  the  Transvaal.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the 
effect  of  exemption  is  not  the  same  in  all  the  colonies 
(The  Native  Affairs  Commission,  Appendix  A- A  3). 
There  are  other  classes  whose  positions  are  peculiar : 

§  4.  Bastards  or  Half-Castes 
The  position  of  "  bastards "  or  "  half-castes "  is  very 


V] 


HALF-CASTES 


127 


uncertain.  They  have  been  held  to  be  within  the  term 
"  native "  in  sect.  2  of  Bechuanaland  Proclamation  64  of 
1869,  as  amended  by  Proclamation  113  of  1881  (Rex  v. 
Stern,  20  S.C.  564)  ;  a  decision  confirmed  by  the  Court  of 
Appeal  in  a  case  (Superintendent  of  Police  v.  Alfred)  the 
facts  of  vv^hich  were  these  :  A  Basuto  woman  who  was  the 
wife  of  a  French  creole  from  Mauritius,  though  she  assumed 
on  marriage  the  status  of  her  husband,  was  held  to  be  a 
native  within  the  Liquor  Act  (sect.  4,  Act  No.  38,  1896; 
Natal,  27  L.R.  368).  The  Court  admitted  that,  generally 
speaking,  the  status  of  the  husband  becomes  that  of  the 
wife.  But  the  definition  in  the  statute  was  conclusive. 
Altogether,  the  position  of  such  persons  is,  as  the  Natal 
Native  Affairs  Commission  points  out,  peculiarly  de- 
plorable. They  are  outside  the  pale  of  tribal  influences ; 
they  are  not  brought  within  the  white  community.  Yet, 
"  as  a  rule,  they  are  monogamists,  and  conform  their  lives 
to  civilised  usages,  and  their  aspirations,  notwithstanding 
many  drawbacks,  are  impressively  towards  the  legal 
position  of  their  '  white  father,'  objecting  to  being  thrust 
down  to  the  level  of  their  '  black  mother ' "  (p.  20) ;  they 
do  not  receive  the  status  which,  having  regard  to  their 
culture,  they  might  fairly  claim. 

§  5.  Illegitimate  Children 

Their  position  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  an 
actual  case  (Bewbew  v.  Dennis,  21  S.C.R.  139).  The 
plaintiff,  a  native  woman  of  the  Transkei  Territory,  had  an 
illegitimate  child  by  the  defendant,  also  a  native.  She 
afterwards  married  another  native.  Her  father  gave  the 
custody  of  the  child  to  the  defendant,  who  paid  for  its 
education.  She  sued  the  defendant  for  the  delivery  of  the 
child.  The  magistrate  gave  judgment  for  the  defendant, 
on  the  ground  that  "  the  native  custom  is  very  clear  that 
an  unmarried  native  girl  cannot  claim  any  child  she  may 


128 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES 


[chap. 


have  had  as  hers.  It  is  the  property  of  her  father."  The 
Acting  Chief  Magistrate  dismissed  the  appeal.  The 
Supreme  Court  did  the  same  (21  S.C.R.  139).  "  It  is 
proved,"  said  the  Court,  "according  to  native  law,  that  it 
is  not  the  mother  of  the  illegitimate  child  who  would  be 
entitled  to  the  custody  of  the  child,  but  it  is  the  father  of 
the  mother  who  is  entitled  to  the  custody"  (p.  141).  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  in  Natal  (Govu  v.  Stuart,  24  N.S.C. 
440)  it  was  held  by  the  Supreme  Court  that  the  illegiti- 
mate child  of  a  native  woman  by  a  European  is  a  native 
within  sect.  5  of  Act  No.  49  of  1898  (overruling  a  contrary 
decision  in  Strydom  v.  Sisila,  "  Farrer  and  Marwick's 
Reports,"  1901,  p.  7).  "The  illegitimate  son  of  a  native 
woman  by  a  European  father  should  be  regarded  as  a 
native  for  the  purposes  of  this  case  "  (p.  447). 

It  would  seem  advisable  to  lay  down  a  uniform  and 
intelligible  rule  as  to  these  cases.^ 

§  6.   Operation  of  Native  Law 

Here,  too,  there  has  been  no  consistent  policy.  The 
legislation  on  the  subject  seems  fortuitous  and  fragmentary. 
Each  colony  has  gone  its  own  way.  Each  colony  has 
from  time  to  time  altered  its  policy  according  to  temporary 
requirements.  To  understand  the  existing  legislation  that 
of  each  colony  must  be  studied. 

As  to  Natal  the  policy  of  the  Colony  is  described  in  the 
case  of  Mahludi  v.  Rex  (26  N.L.R.  298),  in  the  judgment 
of  Bale,  C.J.  It  appears  that  at  one  time  there  was  a 
hope  that  native  law  would  die  out,  so  that  the  natives 
should  come  under  European  law.  Only  the  process  was 
to  be  gradual.  It  was  a  principle  in  the  proclamation  of 
Natal  as  a  British  colony  that  there  was  to  be  one  law 

1  "  The  laws  of  the  Transkeian  Territory,  so  far  as  they  affect  natives, 
are  in  a  most  anomalous  condition"  (Villiers,  C.J.,  in  Sekelini  v.  Seke- 
lini,  21  S.C.R.  p.  124). 


v]  NATIVE  LAW  1 29 

for  white  and  black.  That  has  not  come  about,  and  is  far 
distant. 

In  Natal  there  is  a  carefully  prepared  code  of  native 
law  (Law  No.  19,  1891)  applicable  to  "any  member  of  the 
aboriginal  races  or  tribes  of  Africa  south  of  the  Equator." 

By  sect.  80  of  Act  No.  49  of  1898,  "all  civil  native 
cases  shall  be  tried  according  to  Native  laws,  customs, 
and  usages,  save  so  far  as  may  be  otherwise  specially 
provided  by  law,  or  as  may  be  of  a  nature  to  work  some 
manifest  injustice,  or  be  repugnant  to  the  settled  principles 
and  policy  of  natural  equity." 

In  Cape  Colony  the  native  law  is  not  codified.  The 
native  Courts  have,  as  a  rule,  exclusive  jurisdiction.  The 
governing  principle  is  that  no  Court  has  jurisdiction 
to  try  and  decide  disputes  between  native  aborigines 
according  to  native  law  and  custom,  except  where  it  is 
specially  ordered  (Tabata  v.  Tabata,  5  S.C.  328).^  A  suit 
to  which  a  European  is  a  party  must  be  dealt  with  in  the 
Ordinary  courts  in  the  ordinary  way  (M'Sindo  v.  Moriarty, 
16  S.C.  539;  Proclamation  no  of  1879). 

In  the  Transkei  native  law,  which  is  not  codified,  is 
partly  applied  to  cases  between  natives.  The  Courts  of 
Resident  Magistrates  have  unlimited  jurisdiction  to  try 
actions  for  damages.  For  the  Transkei  there  is  a  Penal 
Code  based  mainly  upon  the  criminal  law  of  Cape  Colony 
modified  to  meet  local  circumstances.  As  to  the  state 
of  things  in  the  Transkei  we  may  quote  the  words  of  a 
judge :  "  The  conflict  of  laws  leads  to  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty  in  dealing  with  questions  arising  in  the  Transkei, 
and  it  is  really  time  this  chaotic  state  of  affairs  should 
be  removed  "  (Buchanan,  J.,  23  S.C.R.  p.  564). 

In  Basutoland  native  law  is  applied  to  cases  between 
natives. 

'  It  is  sometimes  extremely  difficult  to  say  what  is  a  native  case. 
See,  for  example,  Klaas  v.  Rex,  23  N.R.,  p.  12. 

9 


i30  legal  status  of  natives  [chap. 

§  7.  Special  Legislation  as  to  Natives 

There  is  a  very  large  and  highly  complex  mass  of 
legislation  in  each  colony  specially  afifecting  natives.  For 
a  trained  lawyer  to  thread  his  way  through  it  is  not  easy. 
For  natives  to  be  familiar  with  the  laws  which  they  are 
expected  to  obey  is  out  of  the  question.  We  might  deal 
with  several  aspects  of  the  special  legislation,  if  space 
permitted.  We  deal  only  with  one  or  two,  and  first  the 
law  relative  to  marriage. 

(a)  Marriage 

As  to  this  institution,  in  regard  to  which  it  is  pre- 
eminently desirable  that  there  should  be  clear  and  simple 
legislation,  there  is  confusion  and  uncertainty.  This  is 
true  more  or  less  of  all  the  colonies.  To  take  first  the 
case  of  Cape  Colony,  the  Courts  have  drawn  attention 
to  a  strange  omission.  Act  No.  16  of  i860  made  pro- 
vision for  the  appointment  of  marriage  officers  for 
solemnising  the  marriage  of  Mahommedans  according  to 
the  Mahommedan  customs  and  usages.  It  made  no 
provision  for  marriages  according  to  native  customs  and 
usages.  In  a  case  before  the  Courts  the  plaintiff  sum- 
moned the  defendant  to  return  to  him  six  head  of  cattle 
or  their  value,  £20.  The  plaintiff,  a  Tembu,  alleged  that 
he  took  to  wife  a  daughter  of  the  defendant,  also  a 
Tembu,  according  to  Tembu  law  and  custom,  and  gave 
the  defendant  six  head  of  cattle  as  dowry.  The  wife 
deserted  the  plaintiff  without  just  cause,  and  by  reason  of 
this  desertion  he  was  entitled  to  recover  the  dowry.  The 
defendant  took  exception  to  the  summons  that  the  contract 
of  marriage  according  to  the  Tembu  law  was  an  immoral 
one  and  void  ;  and  that  no  action  could  be  brought  upon 
it.  The  Chief  Justice,  after  pointing  out  that  the  Dutch 
law  of  marriage  did  not  insist  upon  religious  ceremony, 
remarked  that  "since  the  promulgation  of  the  Act  No.  16 


V] 


MARRIAGE 


of  i860,  etc.,  the  publication  of  banns,  or  its  equivalent, 
has  been  deemed  necessary,  whether  the  marriage  takes 
place  before  a  minister  of  religion  or  before  a  lay  marriage 
officer,  except  where  a  special  licence  has  been  granted.  .  .  . 
The  only  mode  in  which  a  valid  marriage  can  be  con- 
tracted between  natives  in  this  Colony  is  before  a  minister  of 
religion,  or  a  lay  marriage  officer,  with  previous  publication 
of  banns  or  notice,  or,  failing  these,  by  special  licence.  A 
union,  therefore,  founded  only  upon  native  usages  and 
customs  within  the  Colony  proper  is  not  a  marriage,  what- 
ever rights  may  by  special  legislation  have  been  given  to 
the  offspring  of  such  a  union  in  respect  of  distribution 
of  property  left  by  their  parents  upon  their  death.  In  the 
absence  of  special  legislation  recognising  such  a  union 
as  a  valid  marriage,  Courts  of  law  are  bound — however 
much  they  may  regret  it — to  treat  the  intercourse,  I  will 
not  say  as  immoral,  but  as  illicit "  (Ngquobela  v.  Sihele, 
10  S.C.R.  pp.  351,  352),  "Neither  the  Courts  of  the 
Colony  (Cape)  nor  those  of  Tembuland  can  recognise 
as  valid  any  marriage  celebrated  after  the  date  of  the 
Proclamation  (1885)  with  a  man  who  had  one  or  more 
wives  living  at  the  time"  (10  S.C.R.  p.  357).  And  yet 
we  find  the  same  Court  laying  down  principles  as  to 
Southern  Rhodesia  not  easily  reconcilable  with  the  above. 
We  may  refer,  for  example,  to  the  case  of  Rex  v. 
Mawabe  (20  S.C.R.  647),  an  appeal  from  Rhodesia.  In 
a  trial  for  murder  it  appeared  that  the  accused,  a  native 
of  Matabeleland,  had  two  wives.  One  of  them  was 
adduced  as  witness  for  the  prosecution.  Objection  was 
taken  that  her  evidence  was  not  admissible,  she  being 
the  lawful  wife  of  the  accused.  The  Judge  of  First  In- 
stance overruled  the  objection.  The  Supreme  Court 
upheld  it.  "  I  think,"  said  the  Chief  Justice,  "  that  we 
must  hold  that  the  marriage  is  legal.  If  it  was  legal, 
notwithstanding  its  polygamous  nature,  then  it  can  only 


132 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES 


[chap. 


be  because  of  native  customs  being  introduced,  and  if 
native  customs  recognise  polygamous  marriages  I  do  not 
see  why  these  customs  should  not  be  evidence,  unless  they 
are  contrary  to  natural  law  "  (p.  649). 

Under  the  present  marriage  law,  or  absence  of  it,  serious 
practical  difficulties  may  arise,  and  have  arisen,  as  to 
whether  particular  persons  are  natives  or  Europeans.  To 
illustrate  this  we  would  quote  from  the  judgment  in 
Reg  V.  Parrott  (16  S.C.  452)  :  "  I  fear  the  time  will  come 
when  it  will  be  impossible  to  decide  whether  particular 
persons  are  natives  in  terms  of  the  Act  in  question 
(Act  28  of  1898).  Natives  to  whom  the  definition  applies 
are  continually  marrying  or  cohabiting  with  other 
members,  and  even  Europeans,  and  in  many  cases  it  is 
difficult  to  say  whether  the  progeny  falls  under  the  one 
class  or  the  other."  "  Where  a  European  is  married  to 
a  native  woman  their  children  would  probably  not  be 
treated  as  natives,  but  the  illegitimate  children  of  a  native 
woman  by  a  European,  if  retaining  the  features  or  the 
characteristics  of  the  mother  would  be  natives."  "  Nor 
can  reliance  be  placed  upon  the  fact  that  a  person,  to 
all  appearance  a  native,  bears  a  European  name.  Nothing 
is  more  common  in  this  Colony  than  for  natives  to 
assume  the  names  of  Europeans  whom  they  have  served 
or  who  are  well  known  to  them  "  (p.  454). 

In  the  Transkei  and  Basutoland  the  position  seems  to 
be  this  :  marriages  are  valid  (a)  if  celebrated  by  a  minister 
of  the  Church  of  England  according  to  its  rites  ;  {b)  if 
celebrated  by  a  civil  marriage  officer  duly  appointed  ; 
{c)  if  celebrated  according  to  ordinary  Kafir  or  Fingo 
forms,  provided  they  are  registered  within  three  months. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Natal  a  marriage  is  valid  if 
entered  into  in  accordance  with  native  law  and  custom 
(Code,  sect.  146). 

In  the  Transvaal,  ministers  of  coloured  persons,  having 


SUCCESSION 


the  right  to  solemnise  marriage,  may  now  do  so  on 
compliance  with  certain  conditions.  But  prior  to  the 
passing  of  Law  No.  3  of  1897  (altered  by  Ordinance 
No.  29  of  1903),  there  was  apparently  no  recognition 
by  the  State  of  the  marriage  of  coloured  persons. 
We  may  mention  one  decision  of  interest  (Camel  v. 
Dlamini,  1903,  Transvaal  258).  Two  coloured  persons 
who  in  1895  went  through  the  ceremony  of  marriage 
in  the  Wesleyan  Church  before  a  coloured  minister,  and 
who  lived  together  as  man  and  wife,  were  held  not  to 
be  married.  The  marriage  could  not  be  made  valid  by 
Ordinance  No.  29  of  1903,  which  declared  such  marriages 
valid  provided  they  were  registered  with  the  appointed 
officer ;  it  applied  only  to  marriages  by  a  minister 
"  authorised  to  solemnise  marriages,"  that  is,  ministers 
authorised  by  the  Executive  Government. 

In  the  Orange  River  Colony  marriage  by  native  custom 
is  (subject  to  certain  qualifications)  not  recognised  by  law. 

Obviously  the  state  of  things  thus  briefly  described 
is  unsatisfactory.  Questioned  as  to  this  point,  one  of 
the  witnesses  before  the  Native  Affairs  Commission  replied 
as  follows  :  Q.  "  Don't  you  think  it  lowers  the  standard 
of  the  general  morals  of  these  people  by  the  law  not 
recognising  their  marriages  ? — A.  I  think  it  is  a  very  great 
hardship."    He  added,  "  I  don't  think  it  is  fair." 

(J))  Succession 

As  to  this  matter  the  Colonies  have  acted  somewhat 
alike.  The  whole  family  system  of  all  natives  being 
dissimilar  to  that  of  Europe,  it  might  be  quite  inequitable 
to  apply  the  Roman-Dutch  law,  which  equally  divides  the 
estate  of  the  deceased  among  his  children.  Yet  there 
was  originally  no  jurisdiction  to  decide  cases  in  Cape 
Colony  according  to  native  law  and  custom.  Before 
1864  all  questions,  including  succession,  were  decided 


134  LEGAL  STATUS  OF  NATIVES  [cHAP. 

according  to  the  common  law  of  the  Colony  (Tabata  v. 
Tabata,  5  S.C.R.  328).    This  was  found  to  be  unjust. 

In  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  the  Transvaal,  the  estates  of 
certain  deceased  natives  are  now  administered,  and  their 
devolution  determined,  by  native  law.  The  first  statute 
to  this  effect  was  the  Native  Succession  Act,  No.  18  of 
1864,  which  declares  that  succession  of  natives  holding 
certificates  of  citizenship^  is  to  be  determined  by  native 
law.  Propertj-  left  by  an  aboriginal  native  holding  a 
certificate  of  citizenship  is  to  be  administered  according 
to  the  usage  of  the  tribe  to  which  he  belongs  (s.  2).  All 
controversies  are  to  be  decided  according  to  native  law 
by  the  Resident  Magistrates  of  the  district  in  which  the 
deceased  was  domiciled  (s.  3).  A  native  may  make  a 
will  according  to  colonial  law.  Land  which  he  has  pur- 
chased, and  which  he  owns  in  his  own  right,  he  can  dispose 
of  by  will.  But  in  such  case  the  administration  of  his 
estate  takes  place  wholly  according  to  colonial  law  (Sigidi's 
Exors.  V.  Matumba,  16  S.C.  497).  It  should  be  added 
as  to  Cape  Colony  that  if  a  native  who  is  a  registered 
voter  dies,  his  estate  is  administered  as  if  he  were  a 
European  (Act  No.  39  of  1887,  s.  i). 

§  8.  Defects  of  Present  Law 
We  have  stated  enough  to  show  that  there  is  need  of 
some  general  action  in  regard  to  the  status  of  natives. 
One  of  the  first  results  of  federation  will  be,  it  may  be 
hoped,  to  put  an  end  to,  or  diminish,  this  diversity.  The 
variety  of  the  law  applicable  to  natives  is  great.  So  is  its 
uncertainty.  The  recent  Natal  Native  Affairs  Commission 
remarks  that  "  in  the  case  of  natives  the  civil  rights  they 
enjoy,  and  which  have  been  confirmed  to  them  by  law,  com- 
pare very  favourably  with  those  possessed  by  Europeans  " 
(p.  12).  None  the  less  is  it  true  that  the  law  leaves  the 
1  Act  No.  17  of  1864, 


V] 


DEFECTS  OF  PRESENT  LAW 


position  of  many  persons  undefined.  It  places  in  the 
position  of  the  raw  Kafir  persons  who  are  much  more 
in  sympathy  with  the  whites.  It  casts  a  slur  on  marriages 
which,  according  to  popular  opinion,  are  valid.  Law 
might  be  made  a  great  instrument  of  education  ;  a  means 
of  helping  to  bring  about  some  clear  approximation 
between  races.  It  is  questionable  whether  this  oppor- 
tunity has  been  so  used.  It  is  a  serious  defect  in  any 
body  of  laws  that  they  are  out  of  touch  or  harmony 
with  the  sentiments  of  any  considerable  portion  of  the 
community  in  which  they  are  applied.  It  is  a  still  greater 
defect  that  they  are  not  completely  in  touch  or  harmony 
with  the  sentiments  of  any  part  of  the  community. 
This  is  not  necessarily  a  reproach  to  the  Governments 
concerned  ;  these  defects  may  be  to  some  extent  in- 
evitable where  people  once  living  under  a  tribal  system 
of  personal  rule  come  under  a  Government  of  the  modern 
type.  But  there  is  force  in  the  observation  of  the  Natal 
Commissioners  :  "We  never  stopped  to  think  that  our 
system  had  become  too  impersonal  for  the  masses,  or  to 
see  the  pathos  in  a  simple  people  looking  for  fatherly 
advice  and  assistance  from  a  purely  judicial  officer,  or 
longing  to  consult  an  exalted  and  virtually  inaccessible 
Minister"  (p.  12).  "  It  is  apparent  to  all  who  understand 
the  situation  that  the  natives  are  being  over-administered, 
and  that  they  are  ignorant  of  many  of  the  laws  which 
affect  themselves"  (p.  13). 


CHAPTER  VI 


EDUCATION 

§  I.  Introductory 

The  educational  work  which  the  missionaries  of  many 
churches  and  societies  have  been  carrying  on  among  the 
natives  has  not  yet  received  the  attention  and  support  in 
South  Africa  which  it  deserves,  but  its  value  has  at  least 
been  recognised  both  by  the  Imperial  and  the  Colonial 
Governments.  The  natives  also  are  showing  a  keen  appreci- 
ation of  its  benefits,  and  are  contributing  substantially  to  its 
maintenance.  Public  sentiment  on  the  question  is,  more- 
over, slowly  changing  in  favour  of  a  more  progressive 
policy.  The  old  controversies  as  to  the  wisdom  of 
providing  education  for  natives  have  now  given  place 
to  the  practical  problem  of  ascertaining  what  form  of 

'  The  statements  contained  in  this  chapter  are  mainly  derived  from 
the  following  sources  :  The  Annual  Reports  of  the  Education  and 
Native  Affairs  Departments  of  the  various  colonies ;  The  Annual 
Colonial  Reports  on  Basutoland  and  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  ; 
The  Annual  Reports  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company ; 
Special  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education  on  Educational  Sub- 
jects, vol.  13  (Cd.  2378);  Mr.  E.  B.  Sargant's  Preliminary  Report  to 
the  High  Commissioner  on  Native  Education,  and  his  Report  on  Educa- 
tion in  Basutoland,  1905-6  ;  Evidence  of  witnesses  before  the  South 
African  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5 ;  The  Duff  Missionary 
Lectures  for  1902,  by  Dr.  James  Stewart,  published  under  the  title  of 
"  Dawn  in  the  Dark  Continent "  (Oliphant,  Anderson  and  Ferrier)  ; 
Dr.  Theal's  "History  of  South  Africa";  "  History  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church  of  South  Africa  "  by  the  Rev.  J.  Whiteside  (Elliot 
Stock) ;  Articles  on  Educational  subjects  in  the  Lovedale  magazine, 
The  Christian  Express ;  and  information  supplied  by  various  corres- 
pondents and  informants  of  the  Committee. 

136 


CHAP.  Vl] 


FUNCTION  OF  EDUCATION 


education  is  likely  to  produce  the  best  results.  It  is 
clear  that  the  education  required  by  natives  is  not  in 
all  respects  identical  with  that  needed  by  Europeans.  The 
moral  standards  and  new  ideas  which  it  is  the  object  of 
the  native  schools  to  inculcate  have  to  be  grafted  on  to 
the  stock  of  tribal  tradition  and  sentiment ;  and  the 
character  of  the  instruction  to  be  given  in  these  schools 
must  also  to  some  extent  be  determined  by  the  probable 
future  position  of  the  scholars.  Educational  policy  is 
thus  intimately  bound  up  with  the  transition  from  tribal 
custom  to  civilised  law  now  taking  place  among  the  native 
peoples  of  South  Africa,  and  must  be  considered  with 
constant  reference  to  the  new  and  changing  conditions 
which  that  transition  is  creating.  This  point  of  the 
problem  has  been  justly  emphasised  by  Mr.  Sargant  in 
his  instructive  preliminary  report  to  the  High  Commis- 
sioner. "  Law,"  he  points  out,  "  is  one  of  the  chief  factors 
in  determining  a  system  of  education,  while  education  is 
one  of  the  chief  factors  in  producing  a  change  of  law." 
And  he  proceeds  to  show  that  "  while,  as  a  consequence 
of  the  immense  divergence  between  many  of  the  laws 
necessary  for  the  good  government  of  the  two  races  {i.e. 
whites  and  natives),  separate  educational  schemes  are  also 
required,  care  must  be  taken  so  to  trace  the  lines  of  the 
scheme  of  education  appropriate  to  the  more  backward 
race  that  it  shall  in  time  produce  that  change  of  law 
which  is  required  for  a  closer  approximation  and  under- 
standing between  the  black  man  and  the  white." 

This  definition  of  the  function  of  native  education 
deserves  the  closest  attention  ;  it  supplies  the  standard 
by  which  the  various  educational  systems  which  have 
grown  up  in  the  South  African  colonies  will  sooner  or 
later  have  to  be  tested.  These  systems  have  been  estab- 
lished, somewhat  fortuitously,  by  a  number  of  agencies, 
working  on  different  lines  and  under  a  great  variety  of 


138  EDUCATION  [chap. 

local  conditions  ;  and  in  the  following  pages  we  shall 
endeavour,  first,  to  trace  briefly  the  progress  of  their  work, 
and  then  to  consider,  in  the  light  of  recent  investigations, 
how  far  that  work  has  been  justified  by  its  results,  and  in 
what  respects  changes  of  method  have  become  desirable. 

As  the  conditions  under  which  the  educational  work 
among  the  natives  has  been  carried  on  vary  considerably 
in  the  different  colonies,  it  seems  advisable  for  the  sake  of 
clearness  to  deal  separately  with  the  progress  of  this 
work  in  each  colony. 


§  2.  Cape  Colony 

To  trace  the  origin  of  native  education  in  Cape  Colony 
it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  In  1656,  or  about  four  years  after  the  first 
Dutch  settlement  at  the  Cape,  a  school  was  established  for 
slave  children  and  Hottentots.  This  school  was  only  carried 
on  for  a  month  or  two,  but  it  was  reopened  in  1661,  and 
then  lasted  somewhat  longer.  Another  school  was  opened 
in  1663  for  Europeans,  Hottentots,  and  slave  children  ; 
and  in  1676  a  school  was  established  for  coloured  children 
only.  In  1779  about  700  white  and  coloured  children  seem 
to  have  been  receiving  education  in  the  Cape  Town  district, 
and  soon  after  that  date  the  influence  of  Dr.  Van  Lier  and 
his  Lutheran  congregation  at  Cape  Town,  and  the  arrival 
of  missionaries  from  Europe,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  educa- 
tional work.  The  first  Moravian  missionary,  George 
Schmidt,  had  opened  a  school  for  Hottentots  at  Baviaans 
Kloof  (Valley  of  Baboons),  about  seventy  miles  from  Cape 
Town,  in  1737,  but  after  carrying  on  his  work  for  about 
six  years  he  was  prohibited  by  the  Government  from 
administering  the  rite  of  baptism  to  his  converts,  and 
thereupon  returned  to  Europe.  More  tolerant  views, 
however,  gradually  prevailed,  and  in  1792  the  Moravians 


VI] 


MISSIONS   IN   CAPE  COLONY 


were  able  to  send  out  three  missionaries,  who  re-estabh'shed 
the  mission  at  Baviaans  Kloof.  In  spite  of  constant 
difficulties,  their  work  prospered.  Baviaans  Kloof,  re- 
named Genadendal  (Valley  of  Grace)  in  1806,  grew  into 
a  well-ordered  village,  with  a  school  destined  to  become 
an  important  educational  institution  ;  new  stations  were 
opened  ;  and  the  Cape  Government  assisted  the  brother- 
hood by  grants  of  money  and  land. 

The  Moravians  were  soon  followed  by  missionaries  of 
other  societies.  In  1799  the  London  Missionary  Society 
sent  out  Dr.  Vanderkemp,  who  laboured  among  the 
Hottentots  and  founded  the  mission  station  of  Bethels- 
dorp.  Other  missions  were  carried  on  by  this  Society 
on  the  Orange  River  and  elsewhere,  and  between  1820  and 
1850  it  established  its  important  work  in  Bechuanaland, 
especially  associated  with  the  names  of  Moffat,  Livingstone, 
and  Mackenzie.  This  Society  has  played  a  notable  and 
sometimes  stormy  part  in  the  history  of  South  Africa. 
Under  the  guidance  of  Dr.  Philip,  it  became  involved  in 
frequent  controversies  with  the  colonists  ;  but  it  has  done 
much  to  instil  confidence  in  the  justice  of  British  rule 
among  the  natives,  and  to  win  public  recognition  of  their 
rights  to  equitable  treatment.  To  its  missionaries,  Moffat 
and  Ashton,  the  Bechuanas  owe  their  translation  of  the 
Bible. 

This  adventurous  and  energetic  society  was  followed 
in  1 82 1  by  the  Glasgow  Missionary  Society  (afterwards 
amalgamated  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland),  who  in 
that  year  established  a  mission  on  the  Tyumie  River  in 
Kafifraria.  This  mission  was  the  origin  of  the  well-known 
Lovedale  Institution,  and  it  proved  to  be  the  forerunner  of 
a  number  of  Scottish  Presbyterian  missions  in  Kaffraria 
and  the  Transkei.  The  Scottish  Presbyterian  missionaries 
have  laid  special  stress  on  the  importance  of  combining 
educational   with   evangelistic   work.     Under  the  able 


140 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


guidance  of  Dr.  James  Stewart,  the  Lovedale  Missionary 
Institution,  opened  in  1841,  became  the  leading  educa- 
tional centre  for  natives  in  South  Africa ;  and  a  similar 
institution  was  subsequently  established  by  the  Free 
Church  at  Blythswood,  towards  the  building  of  which  the 
natives  themselves  contributed  no  less  than  ;£"4,500.  The 
United  Free  Church  also  have  an  industrial  school  for 
native  girls  at  Emgwali. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  establishment  of  the 
first  Presbyterian  mission,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  initiated  the  mission  work  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  the  Colony.  For  some  years  the  Society  made 
slow  progress,  but  in  1847  life  was  infused  into  its 

efforts  by  the  consecration  of  Dr.  Gray  as  the  first  bishop 
of  Cape  Town.  Under  his  vigorous  administration  the 
work  of  the  Anglican  Church  grew  rapidly.  The  dioceses 
of  Grahamstown  and  Natal  were  added  to  that  of  Cape 
Town  in  1853,  the  Orange  Free  State  (now  Bloemfontein) 
in  1863,  Zululand  in  1870,  St.  John's  (after  Dr.  Gray's 
death)  in  1873,  Pretoria  in  1878,  Mashonaland  in  1891, 
and  Lebombo  in  1893.  These  nine  dioceses,  with  that 
of  St.  Helena,  now  constitute  the  Province  of  South 
Africa,  of  which  the  Archbishop  of  Cape  Town  is  the 
metropolitan.  The  religious  and  educational  work  among 
the  natives  which  Dr.  Gray  instituted  has  been  carried  on 
by  other  missionary  bishops,  notably  by  Dr.  Callaway,  the 
first  bishop  of  St.  John's,  well  known  as  a  Zulu  and  Kafir 
scholar,  and  his  successor,  Dr.  Key.  The  important 
Zonnebloem  College  for  the  sons  of  chiefs  is  one  of  the 
chief  results  of  Dr.  Gray's  interest  in  native  education,  and 
in  founding  this  institution  he  had  the  warm  support  of  the 
Governor  of  the  Colony,  Sir  George  Grey.  The  Church 
of  England  has  also  established  several  valuable  educa- 
tional institutions,  at  which  native  teachers  are  trained  and 
industrial  instruction  is  provided,  the  most  successful  being 


VI] 


MISSIONS   IN   CAPE  COLONY 


141 


those  at  Keiskama  Hoek  and  Grahamstown  ;  and  it  is 
carrying  on  a  number  of  elementary  schools. 

Before  the  arrival  at  the  Cape  of  the  first  Church  of 
England  and  Presbyterian  missionaries  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missionary  Society  had  established  a  mission 
in  Little  Namaqualand  in  1816,  under  the  charge  of  the 
Rev.  B.  Shaw.  Seven  years  later  the  Rev.  W.  Shaw 
opened  a  mission  at  Wesleyville  among  the  Gcalekas,  and 
a  number  of  other  stations  were  subsequently  established 
in  Kaffraria.  During  the  Kafir  wars  these  stations  had 
to  be  abandoned  ;  but  on  the  restoration  of  peace  they 
were  reopened,  and  the  work  of  the  Wesleyan  missionaries 
extended  rapidly.  Schools  were  established  at  Grahams- 
town  and  Kamastone,  and  industrial  schools  at  Salem, 
Peddie,  Lesseyton,  and  Healdtown.  Of  these  the  most 
important  was  the  school  at  Healdtown.  Sir  George  Grey 
personally  selected  the  site,  and  the  Imperial  Government 
made  a  grant  of  ^^3,000  towards  the  cost  of  the  buildings 
Unfortunately,  after  Sir  George  Grey  left  South  Africa, 
the  industrial  training  given  at  these  schools  was  discon- 
tinued in  consequence  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Government 
grants.  The  day  school  at  Healdtown,  however,  was 
still  carried  on,  and  a  new  department  was  subsequently 
added  for  training  native  teachers  and  ministers.  The 
theological  class  was  removed  to  Lesseyton  in  1 880,  but 
the  classes  for  teachers,  which  have  been  unusually  suc- 
cessful, have  become  a  special  feature  of  the  Healdtown 
institution.  The  Wesleyans  have  also  established  training 
schools  at  Clarkebury,  Bensonvale,  and  Buntingville,  and, 
for  girls,  at  Shawbury ;  and  they  provide  industrial 
instruction  at  their  schools  at  Clarkebury,  Bensonvale, 
Butterworth,  and  Osborne,  and  in  the  Aylifif  Institution  for 
girls  at  Peddie.  Besides  these  institutions,  they  have  a 
large  number  of  day-schools  in  connection  with  their 
numerous  mission  stations.    The  missions  of  the  Wesleyan 


142 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


Missionary  Society  in  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  the  Orange 
River  Colony  have  now  been  placed  under  the  control  of 
a  South  African  Conference.  The  work  of  the  Society 
is  primarily  evangelistic,  but  during  the  last  thirty  years 
it  has  given  much  attention  to  native  education.  One  of 
its  missionaries,  the  Rev.  W.  Boyce,  produced  the  first 
Kafir  grammar  ;  and  another,  the  Rev.  W.  Appleyard,  was 
the  author  of  a  later  and  more  complete  grammar,  and 
was  also  the  translator  of  the  first  complete  Kafir  Bible. 

During  recent  years  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  under 
the  influence  of  the  Murrays  and  others,  has  begun  to  take 
an  active  part  in  mission  work,  especially  among  the 
coloured  people  in  the  Colony,  and  it  is  now  carrying  on 
a  number  of  schools  for  the  coloured  children.  Schools  for 
coloured  and  native  children  have  also  been  opened  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  Lutherans,  the  Rhenish,  Berlin,  and 
Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Societies,  and  others,  including 
several  native  churches  or  organisations.  But  the  educa- 
tional work  of  these  churches  and  societies  is  on  a  much 
smaller  scale  than  that  of  the  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  Wesleyans. 

In  spite  of  the  influence  of  Sir  George  Grey  and  other 
Governors,  and  of  many  leading  colonists,  there  has  always 
been  a  persistent,  though  steadily  weakening,  opposition 
to  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion and  status  of  the  natives.  Nevertheless,  in  the  matter  of 
native  education  Cape  Colony  has  hitherto  been  by  far  the 
most  progressive  of  the  self-governing  colonies  in  South 
Africa.  There  is,  it  is  true,  only  one  Government 
school  for  natives,  which  was  established  under  excep- 
tional circumstances  near  Maitland.  But  since  about  1 841 
the  Government  has  given  systematic  support  to  the 
educational  work  among  the  natives,  and  many  of  the 
schools  carried  on  under  recognised  Christian  denominations 
are  now  receiving  grants-in-aid,  and  have  become  subject 


VI]  SCHOOLS   IN  CAPE   COLONY  143 

to  the  regulations  and  inspection  of  the  Education  Depart- 
ment. This  policy  of  aiding,  but  not  undertaking  direct 
responsibility  for,  native  schools  was  in  the  main  adhered 
to  in  the  School  Board  Act  of  1905.  The  status  of  the 
voluntary  schools  for  natives  remains  undisturbed  by  that 
Act ;  but  it  contains  certain  provisions  enabling  the 
Education  Department,  in  conjunction  with  the  school 
board  of  any  district,  to  establish  a  public  undenominational 
school  for  the  children  "  of  people  of  other  than  European 
parentage  or  extraction,"  if  at  least  fifty  parents  of  such 
children  in  the  district  petition  for  it.  If  there  is 
sufficient  accommodation  at  a  school  of  this  kind  for  the 
children  of  non-European  extraction,  the  school  board  is 
empowered,  after  obtaining  the  approval  of  a  majority  of 
the  ratepayers  and  of  the  committee  of  the  school,  to 
make  the  attendance  of  these  children  compulsory. 

According  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Muir,  the  Superintendent- 
General  of  Education,  for  1905-6,  there  were  at  the  end  of 
that  year  720  aided  "  mission  schools  "  in  the  Colony  proper, 
and  745  aided  "  aborigines'  schools  "  in  the  Transkeian  Terri- 
tories for  coloured  and  native  children,  with  a  total  enrol- 
ment of  5 1 ,054  boys  and  5 1 ,795  girls.  A  comparison  of  these 
figures  with  the  corresponding  statistics  for  1898  shows 
during  these  eight  years  an  increase  of  135  in  the  number 
of  mission  schools,  and  of  271  in  the  number  of  aborigines' 
schools,  and  an  addition  to  the  enrolment  of  no  less  than 
11,075  boys  and  12,025  girls.  The  attainments  of  the 
children  show  that  there  has  also  been  an  improvement 
in  the  efficiency  of  the  schools,  although  62"5i  per  cent, 
of  the  children  in  the  mission  schools,  and  55*96  per  cent, 
of  those  in  the  aborigines'  schools  in  1 906  were  still  under 
Standard  I. 

Dr.  Muir,  in  his  report  for  1903-4,  drew  attention  to  the 
fact  that  better  results  are  obtained  by  the  aborigines' 
schools  of  the  Transkeian  Territories  than  by  the  mission 


144  EDUCATION  [chap. 

schools  of  the  Colony  proper  ;  and  he  attributed  this  differ- 
ence mainly  to  the  existence  of  institutions  in  the  east 
of  the  Colony  known  as  "  aborigines'  training  schools,"  in 
which  teachers  are  trained  for  the  aborigines'  schools.  The 
paucity  of  training  schools  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most 
serious  defects  in  the  Cape  Colony  system  of  native 
education.  In  1906  only  eleven  such  schools  (with  715 
pupils)  were  mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  Superintendent- 
General  ;  and  in  view  of  the  good  work  which  they 
accomplish,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  there  had  been 
no  increase  in  their  number  since  1898.  The  fact  that 
only  859  of  the  2,843  teachers  in  the  aided  mission  and 
aborigines'  schools  in  1906  held  certificates  shows  how 
great  is  the  need  of  institutions  of  this  kind. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  there  has  of  late  been 
a  substantial  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  Government 
grant.  In  1898  the  grant  for  mission  and  aborigines' 
schools  (including  training  schools)  was  ^^46,665  as  against 
a  local  contribution  of  ;^24,098 ;  in  1905-6  it  had  risen 
to  ;^74,I32  as  against  a  local  contribution  of  ;£"44,040.  The 
grant  in  respect  of  each  pupil  present  at  inspection  in  the 
latter  year  was  at  the  rate  of  16^.  2d.  for  mission  schools, 
I5J-.  \d.  for  aborigines'  schools,  and  £Z  ijs.  ^d.  for 
aborigines'  training  schools.  The  grants  to  mission  and 
aborigines'  schools  are  still,  however,  on  a  much  lower  scale 
than  the  grants  made  to  schools  for  white  children,  the 
corresponding  rate  of  grant  to  a  third-class  public  school 
in  1905-6  being  £2  9^.  4^/.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
case  of  native  schools  the  Government  grants  bear  a 
higher  proportion  to  the  local  contribution  than  in  the 
case  of  schools  for  whites,  and  the  requirements  of  the 
Education  Department  with  regard  to  the  qualification  of 
teachers  and  equipment  are  less  stringent. 

During  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  schools  have  been 
opened  by  natives  and  coloured  people  independently  of 


VI]  CURRICULUM  IN  CAPE  COLONY  SCHOOLS  I45 


the  white  churches  or  missionaries.   The  Order  of  Ethiopia 
and  the  native  church  known  as  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Africa  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  State  aid  for  some  of 
their  schools,  and  both  these  bodies  are  apparently  doing 
useful  educational  work.   The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  1 
Church  has  opened  a  large  school,  the  Bethel  Institute,  in  1 
Cape  Town,  with  about  four  hundred  students,  and  several  \ 
mission  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  Colony  ;  but  appar- 
ently none  of  these  schools  have  received  Government 
grants,  although,  presumably,  the  Education  Department 
would  not  withhold  grants  from  them  if  they  complied  i 
with  its  regulations  and  were  not  injuring  other  schools.' 

At  Lovedale  a  few  white  scholars  are  educated  side  by  side 
with  the  native  children,  and  there  are  a  few  white  children 
at  the  Zonnebloem  College  and  in  some  of  the  mission 
schools.  But  as  a  general  rule  white  and  native  children 
are  educated  separately,  and  in  most  cases  this  is  probably 
the  wiser  method.  Dr.  Muir  draws  attention  to  the  good 
feeling  shown  by  the  natives  at  Cape  Town  in  acquiescing 
in  this  arrangement.  He  states  that  he  has  never  had  one 
really  serious  case  of  a  conflict  between  coloured  and  white 
parents,  and  that  natives  do  not  press  unreasonably  for 
the  admission  of  their  children  to  the  white  schools. 

The  children  in  the  mission  and  aborigines'  schools  are 
usually  only  educated  up  to  Standard  IV.,  and  the 
Education  Department  does  not  encourage  these  schools 
to  attempt  to  give  general  instruction  in  higher  standards. 
This  means  that  the  ordinary  education  given  in  these 
schools  includes  little  except  reading  and  writing,  and  arith- 
metic up  to  calculations  with  money  and  ordinary  weights 
and  measures,  and  South  African  geography.  An  exception, 
however,  is  made  in  favour  of  pupil  teachers,  who  have  to 
reach  Standard  VI.  in  order  to  enter  the  special  training 

'  For  further  particulars  of  educational  work  carried  on  by  natives, 
see  Chapter  VII. 

10 


146 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


institutions.  The  curriculum  in  these  schools  is  much  the 
same  as  in  the  schools  for  white  children,  and  English  is 
used  as  the  medium  of  instruction  in  all  the  standards. 
Industrial  training  of  various  kinds  is  given  to  boys  and 
girls  at  Lovedale  ^  and  Blythswood,  and  at  the  Church  of 
England  school  at  Grahamstown,  to  boys  only  at  the 
Church  of  England  schools  at  Umtata,  at  the  Wesleyan 
schools  at  Clarkebury,  Butterworth,  Bensonvale,  and  Osborn, 
and  at  the  London  Missionary  Society's  school  at  Vryburg, 
and  to  girls  only  at  the  Church  of  England  schools  at  Cape 
Town  and  Port  Elizabeth,  the  United  Free  Church  school 
at  Emgwali,  the  Wesleyan  school  at  Peddie,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  school  at  Wynberg.  But  in  September  1906 
there  were  only  268  boys  and  290  girls  receiving  industrial 
training  at  these  schools ;  and  this  side  of  the  educational 
work  in  the  Colony  clearly  calls  for  more  attention  than  it 
has  hitherto  received.  The  Education  Department,  how- 
ever, is  encouraging  industrial  instruction  by  making 
apprentice  grants  and  contributing  to  teachers'  salaries, 
and  Dr.  Muir  particularly  desired  to  introduce  the  teaching 
of  gardening  in  all  schools  where  the  necessary  land  is 
available. 

Most  of  the  mission  and  aborigines'  schools  have 
native  teachers.  These  teachers  are  often  insufficiently 
trained,  and  are  not  always  successful  in  maintaining  dis- 
cipline ;  but  on  the  whole  they  seem  to  do  their  work  fairly 
well,  and  many  of  them  have  a  good  influence  on  their 
scholars.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  show  much  enthusiasm 
for  industrial  education.  This  may  partly  be  due  to  the 
defective  training  which  most  of  them  have  received. 

The  Government  has  given  no  grants  for  the  provision 
of  higher  education  for  natives,  except  in  connection  with 

*  For  particulars  of  the  system  of  education  adopted  at  Lovedale  see 
this  Committee's  previous  volume,  "  The  Natives  of  South  Africa  "  (John 
Murray),  p.  184  et  seq. 


VI]  HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  CAPE  COLONY  I47 


the  training  of  teachers  ;  and  the  facilities  which  at  present 
exist  for  such  education  are  fast  becoming  inadequate. 
At  the  Lovedale  Institution  pupils  are  educated  up  to 
Standard  VI.,  from  which  they  can  pass  into  the  normal 
department  for  the  training  of  teachers,  or  take  a  course 
to  prepare  them  for  the  school  higher,  or  matriculation, 
examinations ;  and  there  is  also  a  theological  course  for  the 
training  of  ministers.  But  during  the  ten  years  between 
1891  and  1 90 1  only  eighteen  natives  entered  the  matricu- 
lation class  and  only  seventy-five  the  school  higher  classes, 
and  in  1907  out  of  sixty-four  native  students  in  the 
"  college  "  department  only  seven  were  in  the  matriculation 
class.  There  were,  however,  about  a  hundred  and  fifty 
students  in  the  normal  department.  Higher  education  can 
also  be  obtained  by  natives  at  the  Zonnebloem  College, 
where  the  students,  after  passing  Standard  VI.,  can  take 
up  the  course  for  teachers  or  enter  a  matriculation 
class.  Very  few  Zonnebloem  boys,  however,  have  passed 
the  matriculation  examination,  and  the  Warden  informed 
the  Native  Affairs  Commission  that  none  of  his  pupils 
had  done  so  during  the  preceding  three  years.  With 
these  exceptions,  there  seem  to  be  no  institutions  in  the 
Colony  at  which  natives  can  obtain  higher  education,  unless 
they  wish  to  be  trained  as  teachers  ;  and  it  is  therefore 
sometimes  extremely  difficult  for  the  native  who  is  in  a 
position  to  give  his  children  a  good  education  to  find  a 
satisfactory  and  convenient  school  to  which  to  send  them. 
Not  long  ago  Mr.  Tengo  Jabavu,  the  editor  of  the  "  Imvo" 
reluctantly  sent  his  son  to  England  for  education,  because 
he  was  not  allowed  to  enter  Dale  College  or  any  other 
college  in  the  Colony  receiving  the  higher  Government 
grants  ;  and  a  number  of  natives  have  recently  been  sent 
for  education  to  negro  institutions  in  the  United  States. 
In  view  of  the  desire  of  an  increasing  number  of  natives 
for  higher  education,  and  of  their  willingness  to  contribute 


148  EDUCATION  [chap. 

substantially  towards  its  cost,  it  seems  clear  that  the  time 
has  come  when  the  Government  should  give  its  support  to 
some  institution  for  supplying  their  needs  in  this  respect. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  average  cost  of  educating  a  boy 
at  Lovedale  is  about  £20  a  year,  exclusive  of  rent.  The 
pupils  or  their  parents  pay  fees  varying  from  £\2  to  £22 
per  annum,  and  the  balance  of  the  cost  is  provided  by  the 
Government  grant  and  the  subsidy  from  the  United  Free 
Church.  At  the  Zonnebloem  College  the  cost  of  each  pupil 
is  about  the  same ;  the  fees  from  each  student  amount  to 
about  £\6  per  annum,  and  the  balance  is  met  by  the 
endowment  and  the  Government  grant.  In  the  case  of 
an  ordinary  mission  school  the  Government  grant  is  at  the 
rate  oi  £\  for  every  loj.  contributed  from  local  sources. 

In  part  of  the  Transkeian  Territories  contributions 
towards  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  aborigines'  schools 
have  been  paid  through  the  headmen,  but  a  much  more 
satisfactory  arrangement  has  been  adopted  in  the  districts 
in  which  the  local  government  clauses  of  the  Glen  Grey 
Act  are  in  force.  In  these  districts  an  education  rate  is 
levied  by  the  district  council,  and  the  proceeds  are  handed 
over  to  the  General  Transkeian  Council.  The  General 
Council  then  applies  this  money  in  making  grants  towards 
the  salaries  of  the  teachers  in  the  districts  in  which  it  has 
been  collected.  The  General  Council  also  contributes 
towards  the  expenses  for  school  furniture  and  other  edu- 
cational purposes.  The  district  councils  have  sometimes 
been  remiss  in  collecting  the  rate,  but  on  the  whole  the 
system  seems  to  have  worked  well,  and  the  schools  in 
these  districts  are  in  a  far  better  financial  position  than  the 
mission  schools  in  which  the  salary  of  a  teacher  depends 
on  the  qualifications  of  his  pupils  and  is  subject  to 
considerable  variations.  Dr.  Muir  stated  before  the  Native 
Affairs  Commission  that  in  some  cases  the  General  Council 
contributed  very  nearly  as  much  as  the  Government,  and 


VI] 


MISSIONS   IN  NATAL 


149 


that  its  payments  were  made  regularly.  "  In  those  dis- 
tricts," he  informed  the  Commissioners,  "  where  the  Glen 
Grey  Act  has  been  proclaimed  better  teachers  are  got, 
schools  are  in  better  condition  generally,  and  the  people 
take  a  good  deal  more  interest  in  education.  Had  I  my 
wish,  I  should  have  these  clauses  of  the  Glen  Grey  Act 
proclaimed  everywhere  throughout  the  Territories." 

§  3.  Natal 

The  first  schools  for  natives  in  Natal  were  opened  in 
1836  on  the  Umlazi  by  Congregationalist  missionaries  sent 
out  by  the  American  Board  of  Missions.  After  eight  or 
nine  years  the  war  between  the  Boers  and  the  Zulus  com- 
pelled them  to  abandon  their  station,  but  one  of  their 
number.  Dr.  Adams,  subsequently  returned  to  it,  and  after 
Natal  became  a  British  colony  the  American  Zulu  Mission, 
as  it  is  now  called,  grew  and  flourished.  It  has  now  many 
stations  and  out-stations  in  the  Colony,  and  has  established 
a  number  of  schools,  of  which  the  chief  are  its  institution 
at  Amanzimtote,  which  includes  a  theological  school, 
and  a  girls'  school  at  Inanda.  A  Zulu  dictionary  and 
grammar  have  been  prepared  and  the  Bible  translated  by 
missionaries  of  this  society. 

Many  schools  for  natives  have  also  been  established 
by  the  Wesleyans,  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland, 
the  Church  of  England,  and  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  by 
other  churches  and  societies  of  various  nationalities.  It 
has,  however,  been  extremely  difficult  in  this  colony  to 
overcome  the  widespread  prejudice  against  the  education 
of  natives  ;  and,  although  the  Government  now  recognises 
and  assists  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  and  others  to  carry 
on  native  schools,  the  colonists  generally  have  shown  little 
sympathy  with  the  work.  The  lack  of  public  support  is  no 
doubt  primarily  due  to  a  certain  feeling  of  anxiety  arising 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


from  the  overwhelming  number  of  the  natives.  This  feeling 
has  been  aggravated  by  the  proximity  to  the  towns  of 
large  masses  of  tribal  natives,  who  have  settled  in  locations 
in  the  centre  of  the  Colony  without  any  buffer  of  partially 
civilised  natives,  as  in  Cape  Colony,  between  them  and 
the  whites.  The  colonists  are  thus  brought  into  constant 
contact  with  raw  tribal  natives.  They  have,  perhaps 
naturally,  insisted  on  the  maintenance  of  a  rigorous  colour 
line,  and  have  become  extremely  jealous  of  anything  that 
tends  towards  racial  equality.  In  Cape  Colony  the  even 
balance  of  political  parties  has  led  to  the  concession  of 
privileges  to  natives  in  order  to  obtain  the  support  of  the 
native  electorate.  But  this  motive  does  not  operate  in 
Natal,  where  the  Dutch  element  is  comparatively  weak,  and 
only  two  natives  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  franchise. 
These  circumstances  may  well  account  for  the  unpro- 
gressive  native  policy  of  the  Colony.  It  is  a  question 
whether  the  whites  in  Natal  would  not  have  been  in 
a  more  satisfactory  position  had  they  shown  more 
sympathy  with  native  sentiment,  and  taken  more  active 
steps  to  evoke  native  loyalty.  Particularly  is  this  the 
case  with  regard  to  the  question  of  education  ;  for  the 
desire  of  the  natives  for  education  merits  encouragement 
rather  than  repression,  and  it  offers  the  Government  an 
exceptional  opportunity  for  promoting  better  relations 
between  the  two  races.  The  natives  are  said  to  complain 
that  the  Government  takes  little  interest  in  them,  except 
with  regard  to  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  that  it  gives 
money  grudgingly  for  their  benefit.  Assistance  in  pro- 
viding schools  would  remove  a  genuine  grievance,  and 
would  be  greatly  appreciated,  at  any  rate  by  the  natives 
who  have  come  under  the  influence  of  the  missions.^ 

The  Government  of  Natal  has  for  some  time  past 
recognised  the  reasonableness  of  the  natives'  demand  for 
'  Known  as  the  Amakola  natives. 


VI] 


SCHOOLS  IN  NATAL 


education,  although  it  has  only  seen  its  way  to  take  some- 
what hesitating  and  tentative  measures  to  encourage  the 
educational  work.  It  began  to  deal  with  the  question  in 
something  like  a  systematic  way  in  1884,  and  in  1886 
a  Government  industrial  school  was  established  at  the 
Zwaartkop  location.  This  school,  however,  proved  a 
failure,  and  was  closed  in  189 1.  Two  Government  schools 
for  "  coloured "  children  have  now  been  opened,  but  all 
schools  for  natives  are  carried  on  by  religious  bodies  of 
various  nationalities,  or,  in  a  few  cases,  by  private  persons, 
the  Government  contributing  small  grants-in-aid. 

In  1905-6  165  schools  for  natives  were  receiving 
Government  grants,  and  these  schools  had  a  total  average 
enrolment  of  4,256  boys  and  6,815  girls,  with  91  European 
and  244  native  teachers.  Ten  of  these  schools  had  ceased 
to  work  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  remaining  155  in- 
cluded 16  boarding-schools,  127  day-schools,  and  12  schools 
with  both  boarders  and  day  scholars.  The  two  Govern- 
ment schools  for  coloured  children  had  an  average 
enrolment  of  98  boys  and  92  girls;  and  there  were  15 
"coloured"  schools,  with  266  boys  and  187  girls  receiving 
Government  grants.  It  is  disappointing  to  find  that  there 
were  fewer  aided  schools  for  natives  in  1906  than  in  1899, 
when  the  number  of  such  schools  was  188.  This  decrease 
appears  to  be  mainly  due  to  the  Education  Department 
having  required  higher  qualifications  from  the  teachers 
than  in  previous  years — a  change  of  policy  which  led  to 
the  closing  of  54  schools  in  one  year.  The  action  of  the 
Department  may  have  tended  to  raise  the  standard  of 
efficiency,  but  the  closing  of  so  many  schools  shows 
how  great  is  the  need  of  further  provision  for  the 
training  of  teachers. 

In  districts  outside  the  effective  influence  of  the  mis- 
sionaries the  natives  are  apathetic  about  the  education  of 
their  children  ;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Colony  chiefs  have 


152 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


objected  to  the  teaching  of  Christianity,  and  have  dis- 
couraged their  people  from  sending  children  to  the  mission 
schools.  It  is  to  be  feared  also  that  some  of  the  magis- 
trates take  little  interest  in  educational  progress.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Christianised  natives  are  eager  for  instruc- 
tion, and  in  some  cases  they  have  established  schools  on 
their  own  responsibility.  They  have,  however,  found  it 
difificult  to  raise  funds  for  the  teachers'  salaries,  and 
hitherto  the  Education  Department  has  refused  to  give 
them  any  assistance. 

As  in  Cape  Colony,  there  has  of  late  been  an  increase  in 
the  amount  of  the  Government  grants,  which  rose  from 
;^5,658  in  1899  to  £7,042  in  1905-6.  The  rate  of  the 
grant  also  increased  from  14.^.  id.  per  child  in  average 
attendance  in  1899  to  ijs.  iid.pcr  child  in  1905-6.  Never- 
theless, the  rate  is  still  on  a  very  low  scale  as  compared 
with  the  £6  Ss.  yd.  granted  per  child  in  the  white  schools, 
and  the  total  Government  expenditure  on  native  educa- 
tion in  the  year  1905-6  (excluding  the  upkeep  of  the 
Education  Office)  only  amounted  to  £8,227,  a  sum  which 
bears  no  adequate  proportion  to  the  educational  needs  of 
the  natives  or  to  their  contributions  to  the  revenue. 

It  has  in  the  past  been  the  practice  of  the  Education 
Department  only  to  allow  aided  schools  to  give  instruction 
up  to  Standard  IV.,  except  in  training  teachers.  The 
recognised  curriculum  includes  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  a  little  history,  and  instruction  in  know- 
ledge of  common  things.  Special  stress  is  laid  on  the 
speaking  of  English,  but  the  native  language  is  used  as 
the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  lower  standards.  In  the 
better  schools  the  Department  requires  manual  work.  As 
a  rule  this  merely  means  instruction  in  agriculture,  but  in 
some  of  the  schools  boys  are  taught  leather  work,  ad- 
vanced horticulture,  stone  work,  waggon-making  and  other 
trades.    The  girls  are  taught  knitting,  crotchet,  and  sewing 


VI] 


SCHOOLS   IN  NATAL 


153 


in  the  day-schools,  and  in  the  boarding-schools  sewing, 
fancy  needlework,  cooking,  laundry,  house,  garden,  and 
field  work.  Most  of  the  day-schools  are  held,  at  great 
inconvenience,  in  places  of  worship,^  but  in  spite  of  many 
difficulties  there  seems  to  have  been  a  steady  improvement 
during  the  last  few  years  in  the  attendance  and  morale  of 
the  children.  They  are  stated  to  be  "  cleaner,  more 
obedient,  and  more  intelligent,"  but  comparatively  few  of 
them  reach  the  higher  standards,  the  report  of  the 
Superintendent-General  for  1905-6  showing  that  in  the 
165  schools  inspected  during  that  year,  no  less  than  8,119 
pupils  were  under  Standard  II.,  2,707  in  Standards  II. 
to  v.,  and  only  245  above  Standard  V.  This  unsatisfactory 
result  is  probably  due  in  large  degree  to  the  lack  of 
properly  qualified  native  teachers.  Although  some  of  the 
boarding-schools  have  classes  for  student  teachers,  further 
provision  for  their  training  seems  to  be  urgently  required. 
The  Education  Department  is,  however,  fully  alive  to  this 
need,  and  is  taking  steps  to  meet  it  ;  and  its  report 
shows  that  native  teachers  are  gradually  becoming 
better  qualified  for  their  duties. 

Good  industrial  training  is  given  in  the  Trappist  schools, 
especially  at  Maria  Ratschitz,  and  at  the  Adams's 
Seminary,  the  Wesleyan  school  at  Edendale,  St.  Augustine's 
(Church  of  England)  in  Zululand,  and  in  the  girls' 
schools  at  Inanda,  Umzumbi  and  Indaleni ;  and  special 
grants  are  made  by  the  Government  for  this  work.  The 
Governor  recently  opened  an  industrial  school  under  the 
charge  of  a  native,  John  Dube,  at  Ohlange. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  Government  grants  provide  about 
one  half  of  the  cost  of  carrying  on  the  aided  native  schools. 

'  The  Education  Department  has  intimated  that  after  July  i,  1908, 
no  school  will  receive  a  grant  unless  it  is  held  in  a  building  used 
exclusively  for  educational  purposes.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  if  this 
regulation  is  enforced,  it  will  be  accompanied  by  liberal  building 
grants. 


154 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


In  most  of  these  schools  small  fees  are  charged  and 
applied  towards  the  payment  of  teachers'  salaries.  These 
fees  vary  from  twopence  to  a  shilling  a  month  in  day- 
schools  and  from  £2  \os.  to  £%  per  annum  in  boarding- 
schools.  In  unprogressive  districts  it  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  for  missionaries  to  enforce  the  payments.  In 
the  diocese  of  Zululand,  for  instance,  no  fees  appear  to  be 
charged,  but  the  people  contribute  in  church  offertories, 
and  sometimes  subscribe  towards  church  and  school 
expenses.  The  churches  and  societies  usually  collect  in 
this  way  such  local  contributions  as  they  can,  and  provide 
the  balance  of  the  necessary  funds  themselves. 

At  present  there  is  no  special  institution  in  the  Colony 
for  providing  higher  education  for  natives.  A  scheme 
for  establishing  an  important  educational  institution  at 
Watersmeet  has,  however,  been  under  consideration.  A 
body  of  natives  offered  land  for  this  purpose,  and  labour 
and  material  "  to  the  utmost  of  their  power."  The  project 
has  been  approved  by  the  Superintendent-General  of 
Education,  and  a  considerable  sum  has  been  placed  on 
the  estimates  for  building  the  proposed  school-house, 
normal  college  and  workshops  for  industrial  training. 
Unfortunately,  legal  difficulties  have  arisen  with  regard  to 
the  site,  and  the  scheme  seems  to  be  making  little  progress. 
But  the  interest  which  the  Government  has  taken  in  this 
project  shows  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  educa- 
tional work,  which,  in  the  past,  it  must  be  admitted,  has 
been  somewhat  lacking. 

The  recent  Natal  Commission  on  Native  Affairs  strongly 
recommended  that  the  Government  should  recognise  and 
take  advantage  of  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the 
missionaries  in  educational  matters  by  constituting  "  a 
small  Board  of  Advice,  upon  which  all  the  denominations 
might  be  directly  or  indirectly  represented,"  with  the 
Superintendent  of  Education  or  the  Senior  Inspector  as 


VI] 


THE  PARIS  MISSION  IN  BASUTOLAND  1 55 


chairman,  to  assist  the  Education  Department  "in 
the  settlement  of  general  principles  and  broad  rules." 
The  Commission  also  advised  the  establishment  of  small 
industrial  schools  and  of  a  central  training  institution  for 
teachers  and  industrial  work,  and  that  grants  should  be 
given  to  existing  schools  on  a  more  liberal  scale  and 
under  less  stringent  conditions. 

§  4.  BASUTOLAND 

The  educational  work  among  the  Basuto  has  to  a  large 
extent  been  in  the  hands  of  the  missionaries  of  a  single 
organisation,  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society.  This 
Society  is  specially  representative  of  French  Protestantism  ; 
but  its  missionaries,  who  have  been  men  exceptionally 
fitted  for  their  work,  have  included  Scottish  Presbyterians 
as  well  as  French  and  Swiss  Protestants.  The  Society  has 
concentrated  much  of  its  energies  on  its  Basutoland 
mission,  which  it  has  organised  as  a  separate  department ; 
and  it  has  been  rewarded  by  the  remarkable  success  of 
this  mission.  The  policy  of  the  Society  and  its  position 
in  the  country  have  given  the  educational  work  in 
Basutoland  an  unusual  unity  and  completeness,  which 
make  it  peculiarly  instructive  as  an  illustration  of  the 
effects  of  Christian  training  on  a  native  people. 

In  Basutoland  the  educational  movement  also  has  a 
special  interest  owing  to  the  distinctive  national  character 
which  it  has  acquired  from  the  close  connection  between 
the  work  of  the  Paris  Society  and  the  fortunes  of  the 
Basuto.  When  the  pioneer  missionaries  of  the  Society, 
MM.  Casalis,  Arbousset,  and  Gosselin,  entered  the 
country  in  1833,  at  the  invitation  of  Moshesh,  that  able  and 
far-sighted  chief  was  already  engaged  in  the  task  of  welding 
together  the  scattered  clans  and  tribes  who,  under  his 
astute  leadership,  ultimately  became  the  Basuto  nation.  In 


156 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


183 1  he  had  succeeded  in  driving  back  from  his  fortress  of 
Thaba  Bosiu  the  dangerous  hordes  of  Moselekatse  ;  and 
in  1840  the  collapse  of  the  Zulu  power  under  Dingan 
removed  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  in  his  way.  But 
on  every  side  he  was  beset  with  dangers.  His  authority 
depended  on  the  goodwill  of  his  people  ;  rival  chiefs 
disputed  his  claims  ;  and,  notwithstanding  his  desire  to 
maintain  peaceful  relations  with  the  white  colonists,  the 
unruly  acts  of  his  followers  involved  him  in  disputes  with 
the  Governments  of  Cape  Colony  and  the  Orange  Free 
State,  which  on  several  occasions  led  to  serious  fighting. 
Throughout  the  perilous  years  during  which  he  was 
gradually  consolidating  and  extending  his  power,  the 
missionaries  rendered  him  invaluable  services.  They 
became  his  trusted  councillors  ;  they  assisted  him  in  his 
negotiations  with  the  Colonial  Government ;  and  they 
spared  no  efforts  to  promote  friendly  relations  with  the 
white  colonists.  More  than  once  their  influence  and  wise 
counsels  saved  him  and  his  people  from  disaster.  And, 
on  his  side,  Moshesh  from  first  to  last  gave  them  his  loyal 
support.  Although  he  never  embraced  Christianity,  he 
was  always  their  protector  ;  he  supplied  missionaries  with 
land  ;  he  directed  his  people  to  live  near  their  churches  and 
schools,  and  he  even  took  part  in  their  services.  Under 
the  shelter  of  his  authority  the  work  of  the  Society 
developed  rapidly.  Its  stations  and  schools  grew  and 
multiplied ;  and  wherever  its  representatives  went  they 
spread  abroad  a  new  spirit  of  progress  and  a  new  standard 
of  life.  The  work  of  the  mission  was,  however,  greatly 
hindered  by  frequent  fighting  ;  and  the  missionaries  shared 
the  misfortunes  of  the  Basuto.  Once  they  were  compelled 
entirely  to  abandon  their  missions.  In  1865-6  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Orange  Free  State  annexed  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  country,  containing  ten  of  the  twelve  stations 
which  the  Society  had  established,  and,  notwithstanding 


VI] 


THE  PARIS  MISSION  IN  BASUTOLAND  1 57 


the  protests  of  President  Brand,  the  missionaries  and  their 
families  were  expelled  as  partisans  of  the  Basuto.  The 
station  at  Thaba  Bosiu  was  destroyed,  and  the  whole 
mission  was  thus  practically  broken  up.  This  unjustifiable 
act  roused  a  storm  of  indignation  in  England,  and  when 
hostilities  again  broke  out  between  the  Free  State  and 
the  Basuto  in  1867,  the  British  Government  decided  to 
intervene.  The  Basuto,  as  they  desired,  were  in  the 
following  year  declared  to  be  British  subjects  ;  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  ceded  territory  was  restored  to  them  ; 
and  in  1871,  the  year  after  Moshesh's  death,  the  country 
was  formally  annexed  to  Cape  Colony.  On  the  restoration 
of  peace  the  missionaries  resumed  their  work ;  and, 
although  interrupted  in  1880  by  the  Gun  War,  which  led 
to  Basutoland  being  taken  over  by  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment, it  has  continued  to  make  steady  progress,  and  is 
still  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  promoting  the  peace  and 
well-being  of  the  Basuto. 

This  close  identification  of  the  Paris  Society  with  the 
struggles  and  growth  of  the  Basuto  people  and  the 
admirable  work  and  wide-spread  influence  of  its  missionaries, 
have  given  it  a  unique  position  in  the  country.  Its 
missionaries  ofSciate  at  the  obsequies  of  the  paramount 
chief;  the  church  which  it  has  established,  "the  Church 
of  Basutoland,"  has  over  40,000  adherents  ;  and  its  schools 
and  training  institutions  practically  constitute  the  national 
system  of  education.  The  Resident  Commissioners  have 
taken  a  lively  interest  in  its  work  ;  and,  as  the  country 
is  strictly  reserved  for  the  Basuto,  there  has  been  an 
absence  of  opposition  arising  from  racial  prejudices.  Under 
these  exceptional  conditions,  the  Society,  notwithstanding 
its  lack  of  adequate  funds,  has  been  able  to  achieve 
remarkable  results,  of  which  not  the  least  important  are 
the  effects  of  its  educational  work. 

At  the  end  of  1905  the  Society  had  185  schools  registered 


IS8  EDUCATION  [chap. 

in  the  Government  offices,  and  its  scholars  at  the  date 
of  the  census  of  April  1904  numbered  11,939.  Nearly  all 
the  schools  are  elementary  day-schools  under  native 
teachers  ;  but  there  is  a  higher  industrial  school  for  boys 
at  Leloaleng;  an  industrial  and  boarding-school  for  girls, 
which  has  recently  been  rem.oved  from  Thaba  Bosiu  to 
Thabana  Morena  ;  a  normal  school  for  training  teachers 
at  Morija  ;  and  a  small  theological  college  or  school  at 
Thaba  Bosiu,  which  was  to  be  removed  to  Morija.  The 
Leloaleng  school,  which  was  opened  about  twenty-seven 
years  ago,  has  become  an  important  institution  with  about 
thirty  scholars.  Most  of  the  pupils  at  this  school  are  in 
or  over  Standard  IV.,  and  they  are  generally  not  admitted 
until  they  have  passed  Standard  II.  They  now  pay  fees 
amounting  to  £4.  a  year.  They  can  take  a  three  years' 
course  in  masonry  or  carpentry,  or  a  four  years'  course  in 
waggon-building  and  forge  work ;  and  the  thorough 
training  they  receive  is  having  tangible  results.  "  Besides 
the  buildings  at  Leloaleng  itself  and  at  Moyeni,"  writes 
Mr.  Sargant,  "these  apprentices  have  built  the  church 
(P.E.M.S.)  at  Siloe,  additions  to  the  church  (P.E.M  S.)  at 
Masitise,  and  some  of  the  new  buildings  at  Morija.  To 
this  list  may  be  added  some  of  the  buildings  of  the 
Government  Industrial  School  at  Maseru.  But  the  chief 
part  of  their  work  has  been  done  for  natives  themselves. 
In  many  of  the  villages,  cottages,  not  unlike  those  to  be 
found  in  Northumberland,  are  now  built  of  prepared  stone, 
either  smooth  or  bull-faced."  The  Leloaleng  pupils  have 
vainly  tried  to  obtain  employment  at  Bloemfontein,  where 
a  municipal  by-law  forbids  the  contractors  to  employ 
native  carpenters  and  builders  for  town  work.  But  they 
have  found  employment  in  East  Griqualand  and  in 
Basutoland  itself;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  most  of  them 
hold  land  and  cattle,  and  thus  pursue  their  trades  without 
altogether  abandoning  their  more  natural  pastoral  life. 


VI] 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  BASUTOLAND  1 59 


Good  industrial  and  higher  education  is  also  given  in  the 
girls'  school  at  Thabana  Morena,  and  more  advanced 
education  is  provided  at  the  Morija  school  for  training 
native  teachers.  The  first  station  of  the  Society  was 
established  at  Morija,  which  is  still  the  headquarters  of 
the  Society's  work  ;  and  its  normal  school  has  made  it  an 
important  educational  centre.  This  institution,  which  was 
opened  in  1868,  shortly  after  the  war  with  the  Free  State, 
had  134  students  in  1905.  It  is  divided  into  a  preparatory 
school,  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  Standards  V. 
and  VI.,  and  the  normal  school  proper,  with  a  three  years' 
course.  The  students  do  their  own  cooking,  washing, 
mending  of  clothes,  and  similar  work  ;  and  they  gain  some 
knowledge  of  horticulture  by  working  in  the  gardens  of 
the  missionaries.  But  they  receive  no  systematic  industrial 
training,  and  this  omission  has  placed  them  at  a  dis- 
advantage when  competing  in  the  Cape  Colony  examina- 
tions. Another  interesting  institution  is  the  Society's 
theological  college  or  school  at  Thaba  Bosiu.  This 
institution,  which  is  under  the  charge  of  M.  Jacottet,  is 
intended  for  the  training  of  native  ministers.  The 
students,  in  1905  four  in  number,  are  chosen  with  great 
care.  Before  they  can  be  admitted,  they  must  have 
worked  in  some  mission  as  catechists  or  teachers,  and  they 
must  also  have  been  accepted  as  students  by  the  Seboka 
or  council  of  the  Church  of  Basutoland.  Each  student  has 
a  separate  house  or  apartments  with  a  garden,  and  receives 
£iS  3.  year  for  his  expenses.  If  he  is  married,  he  brings 
his  family  with  him.  Small  as  this  institution  is,  its 
importance  is  great,  for  the  Paris  Society  entrusts  its 
native  ministers  with  extremely  responsible  duties,  and  a 
native  minister,  if  well  qualified  for  his  post,  has  often 
remarkable  influence  over  his  fellow-natives. 

Most  of  the  elementary  schools  of  the  Society  are  in  the 
south  of  the  country,  which  has  come  more  under  the 


l6o  EDUCATION  [chap. 

influence  of  the  missionaries  than  the  north ;  and  in 
progressive  districts  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupils  are 
girls.  These  schools  often  have  to  be  held  in  the  churches 
of  the  mission — an  arrangement  which  is  not  conducive 
to  the  comfort  of  teachers  or  scholars — and  they  frequently 
lack  proper  furniture  and  equipment.  The  teachers  are 
nearly  all  natives ;  in  fact,  of  the  268  teachers  in  the 
schools  of  the  Society  in  1905,  only  eight  were  Europeans. 
They  are  generally  young  men  who  have  embraced 
Christianity  ;  and  Mr.  Sargant,  in  his  report,  describes 
them  as  often  being  men  of  real  faith,  and  refers  to  their 
earnestness  and  power  of  initiative.  But  they  are  too  few 
in  number,  and  as  a  rule  they  have  received  no  adequate 
training.  About  10  per  cent,  of  them  hold  the  third-class 
teachers'  certificate  of  Cape  Colony :  others  have  merely 
passed  Standards  III.  or  IV.  in  the  Basutoland  schools. 
The  highest  salaries  are  about  £^4  a  year,  but  the  chiefs 
allow  them  land,  and  they  often  have  common  grazing 
rights.  The  missionaries  generally  interfere  but  little  in 
the  working  of  the  schools,  and  thus  place  great  responsi- 
bility on  the  head  teachers.  Some  teachers  aim  at 
becoming  ministers,  and,  as  the  teaching  profession  is 
regarded  by  the  Basuto  as  an  honourable  one,  a  certain 
prestige  attaches  to  their  position.  Mr.  Sargant,  however, 
thought  that  they  had  insufficient  opportunities  of  develop- 
ing a  real  esprit  de  corps,  and  urged  that  the  Government 
should  do  more  to  recognise  their  work. 

The  standards  adopted  in  these  schools  are  those  of  the 
Education  Department  of  Cape  Colony,  but  the  curriculum 
has  been  varied  in  one  important  particular — the  native 
language  is  used  as  the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  lower 
standards,  instead  of  English,  as  in  the  Cape  schools. 
Nevertheless,  even  in  Basutoland  the  native  language  is 
not  taught  satisfactorily,  and  the  parents  are  sometimes 
so  eager  that  their  children  should  learn  English  that  they 


vi]  ROMAN  CATHOLICS  IN  BASUTOLAND  l6l 

refuse  to  pay  for  Sesuto  school-books.  Another  weakness 
in  these  schools  is  the  general  neglect  of  industrial  training, 
and  the  importance  of  this  side  of  native  education  hardly 
seems  to  have  been  sufficiently  appreciated  by  the 
missionaries  of  the  Society.  Hitherto  the  Society  has  had 
great  difficulty  in  collecting  fees  in  its  day-schools,  and 
it  appears  only  to  have  been  receiving  about  ;^^300  a  year 
from  this  source.  Recently,  however,  it  has  been  en- 
deavouring to  enforce  the  payment  of  fees  more  systema- 
tically. 

The  educational  work  of  the  Society  has  not  been 
confined  to  its  schools.  Its  missionaries  have  prepared 
Sesuto  translations  of  the  Bible — the  work  chiefly  of 
MM.  Casalis  and  Mabille — and  of  the  "Pilgrim's 
Progress."  They  have  also  produced  a  Sesuto  hymn-book 
and  a  number  of  religious  and  educational  works,  and  a 
Sesuto  paper,  the  Leselinyana,  is  issued  every  fortnight 
from  the  Morija  press. 

The  special  position  of  the  Paris  Society  naturally  throws 
the  operations  of  other  organisations  somewhat  into  the 
background.  Nevertheless,  excellent  educational  work 
has  been  done  both  by  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
Church  of  England  missions.  '1  he  first  Roman  Catholic 
mission  was  established  at  Roma  in  1864,  and  since  that 
time  it  has  opened  several  new  stations  and  established  a 
number  of  schools.  In  1905  this  mission  had  ten  registered 
schools,  including  two  boarding-schools  for  boys  and  girls 
respectively  at  Roma ;  and  according  to  the  census  of 
1904  it  then  had  723  pupils.  There  are  a  few  pupils  at 
the  Roma  schools  in  or  above  Standard  IV.,  but  practically 
all  the  schools  of  the  mission  are  for  elementary  education 
only.  The  girls,  who  constitute  the  majority  of  the  pupils 
at  Roma,  are  taught  spinning,  knitting,  sewing,  and  house- 
work. Unlike  the  Protestant  missionaries,  the  Roman 
Catholics  very  seldom  employ  native  teachers,  and  in  their 

U 


1 62  EDUCATION  [chap. 

day-schools  the  instruction  is  given  by  unpaid  sisters  of 
the  Holy  Family  of  Bordeaux  ;  but  the  scarcity  of 
European  teachers  has  made  it  difficult  for  the  mission 
to  provide  education  even  for  the  children  of  its  own 
converts. 

The  English  Church  Mission  established  its  first 
permanent  station  at  Hlotse  in  1876.  It  has  subsequently 
opened  other  stations  and  has  done  much  educational 
work.  In  1905  it  had  28  registered  schools,  and  at  the 
date  of  the  census  of  1904  it  had  1,226  scholars.  The 
chief  educational  institutions  of  this  mission  are  its  small 
normal  and  preparatory  schools  at  Hlotse  and  Masite, 
at  which  manual  training  is  given  ;  and  a  girls'  school  at 
Maseru,  where  some  of  the  girls  are  taught  laundry 
work.  All  the  other  Church  of  England  schools  seem  to 
be  elementary  day-schools,  similar  in  character  to  the  day- 
schools  of  the  Paris  Society,  native  teachers  being  employed 
and  small  fees,  amounting  to  a  few  shillings  a  year,  being 
charged  when  practicable. 

A  few  schools  have  been  established  by  the  natives 
themselves.  One  of  these  has  been  carried  on  by  the 
native  chief  Joel,  but  apparently  he  soon  lost  interest  in 
it,  and  its  condition  has  not  been  satisfactory. y  Several 
schools,  containing  about  500  scholars,  have  during  the 
last  few  years  been  opened  by  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  but  hitherto  Ethiopianism  has  made 
little  headway  in  the  country,  j 

Valuable  support  has  been  given  to  the  educational  work 
by  the  Imperial  Government,  and  previously  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  Cape  Colony.  After  the  annexation  of  Basutoland 
in  1 87 1  the  Cape  Government  made  grants-in-aid  to  the 
Paris  Society,  and  similar  assistance  was  subsequently  given 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  missions.  The  Cape 
Government  also  established  a  model  denominational 
school  at  Maseru,  which  was  burnt  during  the  Gun  War 


Vl]  BASUTOLAND— GOVERNMENT  GRANTS  163 


in  an  attack  on  the  town.  When  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment took  over  the  country  in  1884  the  system  of  grants- 
in-aid  was  continued,  and  the  Resident  Commissioners  have 
always  been  warm  supporters  of  the  educational  work.  The 
Cape  Education  Department,  under  Sir  Langham  Dale 
and  Dr.  Muir,  has  also  continued  to  show  a  practical  interest 
in  the  education  of  Basuto  students,  and  from  time 
to  time  has  given  much  valuable  help  and  advice.  No 
separate  Education  Department  for  Basutoland  has  yet 
been  established,  but  an  Education  Officer  was  provisionally 
appointed  in  1906-7.  Previously  the  aided  schools  had 
been  inspected  annually  by  two  District  Commissioners  or 
their  assistants,  and  occasionally  by  a  trained  inspector, 
reports  of  the  inspections  being  sent  to  the  Resident 
Commissioner. 

During  recent  years  there  has  been  a  substantial  increase 
in  the  amount  of  the  Government  grants.  In  1897-8  the 
expenditure  of  the  Government  on  education  was  £2,j^6  ; 
in  1906-7  it  had  risen  to  ;£^i4,ooo  (including  the  expenditure 
on  the  industrial  school  at  Maseru).  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  between  these  dates  the  hut-tax  had  been 
raised  from  los.  to  £1,  and  that,  as  an  inducement  to  the 
Basuto  to  acquiesce  in  the  change,  Lord  Milner  assured 
them  that  the  Government  would  spend  further  sums  in 
assisting  education.  The  French  missionaries  appear  to 
have  hoped  that  the  increase  in  the  grant  would  have  been 
on  a  still  more  liberal  scale,  and  it  is  not  very  clear  that 
it  has  fully  satisfied  the  Basuto  themselves. 

In  1898  the  late  paramount  chief,  Lerothodi,  handed 
over  to  the  Government  a  sum  of  money  which  he  had 
collected  from  his  people  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
a  central  industrial  institution.  Owing  to  the  late  war,  the 
execution  of  this  scheme  had  to  be  postponed,  but  in 
1904  the  Government  again  took  the  matter  up.  A  site 
near  Maseru  was  selected  by  the  Resident  Commissioner, 


164 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


and,  in  addition  to  the  sum  contributed  by  the  Basuto, 
amounting  to  £4.,SS9>  Lord  Milner  authorised  a  Govern- 
ment expenditure  of  5,000,  during  the  three  years  1905-8, 
on  the  necessary  buildings  and  equipment.  By  January 
1906  a  portion  of  the  building  had  been  completed,  and 
the  school  was  opened  under  Mr.  Fogarty  as  director.  A 
few  weeks  later  Lord  Selborne  laid  the  foundation-stone  of 
the  main  school  building,  which  has  since  been  completed. 
The  institution  comprises  departments  for  builders,  black- 
smiths, carpenters,  waggon-makers,  and  engineers,  and 
provides  accommodation  for  eighty  pupils.  The  Basuto 
have  been  eager  to  take  advantage  of  the  training  it 
offers,  seventy  applications  for  admission  having  been 
received  before  the  school  was  opened,  and  much  useful 
work  has  already  been  done  by  the  pupils  in  the  various 
departments. 

The  Government  has  also  for  some  time  past  given 
assistance  to  successful  scholars  to  enable  them  to  obtain 
secondary  education  and  industrial  training  at  Lovedale 
or  at  other  similar  institutions  in  Cape  Colony  or  Natal. 
Some  of  the  leading  Basuto  chiefs  have  received  their 
education  at  the  Zonnebloem  College,  which,  in  accordance 
with  the  intention  of  its  founders,  is  still  frequented,  though 
in  a  less  degree  than  formerly,  by  the  sons  and  relatives 
of  chiefs. 

It  is  stated  that  the  high  wages  earned  by  educated 
natives  during  the  late  war  gave  a  considerable  stimulus 
to  the  educational  movement  in  Basutoland.  At  any  rate 
there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  desire  for  instruction 
is  growing.  Children  often  walk  long  distances  to  school. 
Parents  are  taking  more  interest  in  education,  especially  in 
districts  under  the  charge  of  native  ministers.  Labour, 
materials,  and  money  for  building  schools  are  freely  supplied, 
and  the  rich  congregations  help  the  poorer  to  raise 
the  necessary  funds.      Although  it  has  been  difficult  to 


vi]  BASUTOLAND— MR.  SARGANT'S  REPORT  l6S 


collect  fees  in  the  day-schools,  Mr.  Sargant  estimated  in  1906 
that  the  total  contributions  from  natives  in  Basutoland 
towards  the  cost  of  education  were  about  equal  to  the 
mission  funds  derived  from  foreign  sources.  How  con- 
siderable the  growth  of  the  educational  work  has  been 
during  the  last  few  years  may  be  gathered  from  a  comparison 
of  the  statistics  for  1898-9  with  those  for  1906-7.  In  the 
former  year  there  were  169  schools  on  the  Government 
books,  with  10,348  scholars ;  in  1906-7  the  number  of 
these  schools  had  risen  to  250,  with  12,275  scholars. 

Mr.  Sargant's  report  to  the  Resident  Commissioner  in 
1906  contains  a  number  of  valuable  recommendations  for 
the  improvement  of  the  educational  system,  which  may  be 
briefly  summarised  as  follows  : 

Efficient  and  economical  as  the  administration  of  the 
Paris  Society  undoubtedly  is,  the  work  of  the  Society  has 
outgrown  its  organisation  ;  and  the  time  has  now  come  for 
more  intimate  co-operation  by  the  Government  and  for 
the  establishment  of  an  Education  Department  with  a  staff 
of  inspectors.  The  Government  should  arrange  for  the 
opening  of  schools  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where 
none  exist  and  where  no  mission  is  willing  to  provide 
them,  and  should  increase  its  grants  to  the  missionary 
societies.  A  central  advisory  board  should  be  constituted, 
consisting  of  the  Government  Secretary  as  chairman,  the 
Director  of  Education  as  vice-chairman,  and  five  members 
appointed  by  the  Resident  Commissioner,  of  whom  three 
would  be  representatives  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission 
Society,  one  of  the  English  Church,  and  one  of  the  Roman 
Catholics.  One  of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society's  repre- 
sentatives should  be  a  native,  and  a  separate  representative 
of  the  natives  should  ultimately  be  added.  Training 
should  be  given  in  all  elementary  schools  in  "  manual 
occupations  leading  up  to  familiar  native  industries  "  (e.g. 
straw-plaiting,  moulding  of  clay,  bead-  and  wire-work),  and 


1 66  EDUCATION  [chap. 

for  girls  in  sewing  and  knitting.  In  schools  of  a  higher 
class  instruction  might  be  given  in  native  industries, 
drawing,  elementary  physical  measurements  and  observa- 
tions, carpentry  and  gardening  ;  and  girls  could  be  taught 
sewing,  knitting,  washing,  ironing,  dressmaking,  cooking, 
and  other  domestic  work.  In  special  institutions  gardening, 
elementary  agriculture  and  forestry  should  also  be  taught. 
The  teaching  of  European  trades  should  be  confined  to  a 
few  specially  equipped  institutions.  In  the  most  elementary 
village  schools  arithmetic  and  the  reading  and  writing  of 
Sesuto  should  constitute  the  chief  subjects  of  instruction, 
and  English  should  only  be  taught,  if  at  all,  as  a  spoken 
language.  The  course  should  not  be  of  more  than  three 
years,  and  every  Mosuto  child  should  pass  through  such  a 
school  and  should  there  learn  something  of  the  handicrafts 
of  his  country.  The  next  higher  type  of  elementary  school 
should  be  arranged  in  two  divisions,  the  lower  division 
being  similar  to  the  ordinary  village  school,  and  the  upper 
division  receiving  instruction  in  English  and  inexpensive 
European  industries ;  and  in  both  divisions  arithmetic 
should  be  adopted  as  the  basis  of  classification.  The  most 
advanced  type  should  have  three  divisions.  Thus  the 
Government,  in  Mr.  Sargant's  opinion,  should  recognise 
three  grades  of  elementary  schools,  the  lowest  giving 
instruction  in  sub-standards,  with  no  reading  or  writing  of 
English  ;  the  next  giving  instruction  up  to  Standard  III. ; 
and  the  highest  up  to  Standard  VI.  Proper  arrangements 
should  be  made  for  inspection  and  examinations ;  and 
vacation  courses  should  be  held  for  the  teachers. 

These  important  and  far-reaching  recommendations  were 
submitted  to  the  Resident  Commissioner  by  Mr.  Sargant 
after  conferring  with  representatives  of  the  various  missions 
and  they  will  no  doubt  carry  great  weight.  They  obviously 
involve  a  considerable  increase  in  expenditure,  but,  as  the 
Government  has  a  substantial  balance  in  hand  representing 


VI]  EFFECTS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  BASUTOLAND  167 

accumulated  surplus  of  revenue  over  expenditure,  the 
financial  side  of  the  question  does  not  seem  to  present 
insuperable  difficulties,  and  the  results  of  education  in 
Basutoland  may  well  encourage  the  Government  to  incur 
some  further  responsibility.  The  Basuto  are  no  longer 
the  turbulent  people  whom  the  strong  hand  of  Moshesh 
could  hardly  control.  Although  they  still  retain  their 
arms,  they  have  become  a  loyal,  and  on  the  whole  an 
orderly  and  peaceable  community.  The  most  independent 
native  people  in  South  Africa,  they  are  also  probably  the 
most  prosperous  and  industrious.  Education  has  given 
them  new  wants  and  new  incentives  to  labour  ;  and  every 
year  many  thousands  of  them  seek  temporary  employment 
outside  Basutoland,  and  thus  provide  a  valuable  supply  of 
labour  for  the  neighbouring  colonies.^  This  remarkable 
change  in  the  national  character  cannot  of  course  be  attri- 
buted solely  to  education.  In  part  it  is  due  to  the  ability 
and  wisdom  of  the  paramount  chiefs  ;  in  part  also  to  the 
admirable  system  of  administration  introduced  by  Sir 
Marshal  Clarke  and  to  the  firmness  and  tact  of  the 
Resident  Commissioners.  But  the  spirit  of  progress  which 
is  steadily  permeating  the  country  had  its  birth  in  the 
unpretentious  schools  of  the  missionaries. 

§  5.  The  Transvaal 

Educational  work  among  the  Transvaal  natives  was 
initiated  by  the  Hermannsburg  Evangelical  Lutheran  and 
the  Berlin  Missionary  Societies,  who  established  their  first 
missions  in  1857  and  i860  respectively.  After  many  years 
they  were  followed  by  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  the 

>  In  1906-7,  which  was  a  good  year,  with  plentiful  rains,  76,785  labour 
passes  were  issued  to  Basuto  seeking  employment  in  various  parts  of 
South  Africa.  In  the  previous  year,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  bad 
one,  the  number  of  these  passes  was  95,009, 


1 68  EDUCATION  [chap. 

Swiss  Mission,  the  Wesleyans,  the  Church  of  England,  and 
other  religious  bodies,  including  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopalian  Church.  By  these  societies  and  churches  a 
number  of  schools  for  natives  were  established.  The 
missionaries  carried  on  their  work  under  great  difficulties, 
and  they  received  no  assistance  from  the  Boer  Government, 
beyond  the  occasional  exemption  of  native  teachers  from 
the  poll-tax.  Consequently,  the  schools  remained  in  a 
very  primitive,  inefficient  condition,  and  education  has 
made  comparatively  little  progress  among  the  natives. 

After  the  late  war  the  Executive  Council  collected 
statistics  with  regard  to  the  schools  established  by  the 
various  organisations,  and  adopted  a  scheme,  which  came 
into  operation  at  the  beginning  of  1904,  for  granting  finan- 
cial aid  to  such  schools  as  complied  with  the  official 
regulations.  In  1904-5  there  were  in  existence  276  schools 
for  native  children,  with  an  enrolment  of  17,912  pupils 
and  425  teachers.  By  the  end  of  that  year  172  of  these 
schools  (for  the  most  part  under  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  and  the  Berlin  Mission)  were  registered  under  the 
scheme  of  the  Executive  Council,  and  were  therefore  in  a 
position  to  receive  grants-in-aid.  At  the  close  of  1906-7 
the  number  of  registered  schools  was  199  ;  and  during  that 
year  there  was  a  total  average  enrolment  in  aided  schools 
of  11,730  scholars  and  339  teachers.  The  unaided  schools 
in  1905-6  numbered  177,  with  208  teachers  and  8,492 
pupils  on  the  roll.  Ten  schools  ^  have  been  opened  for 
"coloured"  children,  and  in  1906-7  the  Government  ex- 
penditure in  respect  of  these  schools  was  ^4,931.  The 
total  average  enrolment  in  these  schools  during  that  year 
was  6687  boys  and  586-4  girls.  The  native  education 
grants  for  1906-7  amounted  to  £7,g4.i,  including  1,949 

'  Some,  if  not  all,  of  these  appear  to  be  Government  schools.  Under 
the  Education  Act  of  1907  the  Government  can  establish  schools  for 
native  or  "  coloured  "  children,  and  institutions  for  native  or  "  coloured  " 
teachers. 


Vi]  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  TRANSVAAL  169 

for  training  teachers.  The  Education  Department  has 
declined  to  make  grants  to  any  school  which  is  not 
under  the  supervision  of  a  white  missionary  ;  and  this 
rule,  if  still  in  force,  might  well  be  reconsidered,  as  a 
number  of  schools  have  been  established  by  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopalian  Church  and  other  native  bodies, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  for  refusing 
them  grants,  if  they  comply  with  the  standard  of  efficiency 
required  by  the  Department. 

In  the  aided  schools  instruction  is  given  in  English, 
reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic,  physical  exercises, 
singing,  elementary  drawing,  and  in  sewing  (for  girls),  and 
industrial  work,  such  as  gardening,  mat-weaving  and  basket- 
making  (for  boys).  Standard  III.  is  the  limit  fixed  in  the 
Government  scheme.  Some  difficulty  has  been  caused  by 
the  number  of  native  languages  existing  in  the  Colony  ; 
and  the  Education  Department,  although  it  does  not  other- 
wise interfere  with  the  teaching  of  the  native  languages, 
has  been  obliged,  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  to  prescribe 
English  as  the  language  for  examination  purposes.  The 
children  usually  pay  fees  varying  from  6d.  to  \s  per  month, 
but  in  some  schools  as  much  as  2s.  a  month  is  charged. 

The  official  reports  and  the  evidence  given  before  the 
Native  Affairs  Commission  show  that  most  of  the  native 
schools  are  in  a  state  of  deplorable  inefficiency.  They  are 
generally  held  in  church  buildings  ill-adapted  for  educational 
purposes.  In  many  cases  seats  and  desks  have  not  been 
provided,  "  squatting  room  "  for  the  children  having  been 
thought  sufficient.  The  education  given  is  often  of  an 
extremely  rudimentary  kind.  In  114  schools  inspected 
during  1904  no  less  than  8 5  "5  per  cent,  of  the  children 
in  attendance  were  in  the  sub-standards,  and  only  r5  per 
cent,  had  passed  or  reached  Standard  III.  In  1905-6  only 
65  out  of  the  305  native  teachers  held  certificates  ;  and  the 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  these  schools  is  largely  due  to 


I70  EDUCATION  [chap. 

the  inefficiency  of  the  teaching  staffs.  Many  teachers  are 
incapable  of  giving  instruction  beyond  Standard  I.,  and 
comparatively  few  are  competent  to  bring  their  pupils  up  to 
Standard  III.  Even  of  such  ill-qualified  teachers  there  is 
no  adequate  supply;  but  this  no  doubt  is  due  in  part  to  the 
low  remuneration  offered  them,  missionary  superintendents 
often  objecting  to  pay  higher  salaries  than  £i8  to  £24  a 
year — a  rate  of  remuneration  considerably  lower  than  that 
of  a  labourer  in  the  mines.  Absence  of  adequate  provision 
for  the  training  of  teachers  is  a  fatal  defect  in  the  present 
educational  system.  The  only  training  institutions  recog- 
nised by  the  Government  seem  to  be  the  Wesleyan  school 
at  Kilnerton,  a  Swiss  Mission  school,  the  new  training 
school  opened  at  Bothsabelo  by  the  Berlin  Mission,  and 
another  near  Pietersburg  established  in  1906  by  the 
Church  of  England.  In  1906-7  these  four  schools  pro- 
vided instruction  for  117  students.  In  the  absence  of 
adequate  training  schools,  the  Education  Department  has 
held  or  supervised  short  instruction  courses  for  teachers, 
which  have  been  greatly  appreciated. 

Industrial  instruction  is  given  at  the  Endhlozana,  Kil- 
nerton, and  Shiluvane  institutions,  and  at  some  schools 
in  the  Zoutpansberg,  but  hitherto  neither  the  missionary 
superintendents  nor  the  natives  have  shown  much 
enthusiasm  for  this  expensive  but  important  side  of 
educational  work.  The  provision  of  industrial  schools  was 
contemplated  in  the  educational  scheme  prepared  by  the 
Government,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  something  will 
shortly  be  done  in  this  direction. 

There  seems  to  be  no  provision  to  meet  the  needs  of 
natives  who  wish  to  give  their  children  higher  education, 
unless  the  children  are  trained  as  pupil  teachers.  Natives 
who  desire  such  education  for  their  children  but  do  not 
intend  that  they  should  become  teachers,  have  therefore  to 
send  them  to  institutions  outside  the  Colony. 


VI]  SLOW   PROGRESS  IN  THE  TRANSVAAL  171 


In  1906  the  ofifice  of  Superintendent  of  Native  Education 
was  abolished,  and  the  native  schools  were  placed  under 
the  district  inspectors.^  It  was  hoped  that  this  change 
would  at  any  rate  make  it  possible,  to  carry  out  annual 
inspections  of  all  the  aided  schools.  In  this  and  other 
ways  the  Education  Department  has  been  endeavouring  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  native  schools,  but  the  lack  of 
funds  has  been  a  fatal  obstacle  to  rapid  progress.  Large 
as  are  the  amounts  collected  from  the  natives  in  taxes, 
the  sums  voted  for  native  education  have  hitherto  been 
wholly  inadequate  ;  and  the  opposition  to  any  attempt  to 
increase  these  contributions  indicates  that  the  importance 
of  native  education  as  a  factor  in  the  prosperity  of  the 
Colony  is  as  yet  very  imperfectly  recognised.  Nevertheless, 
the  educational  system  has  now  at  least  been  placed  on 
a  more  satisfactory  basis,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
native  schools  by  the  Government  has  opened  the  door 
to  new  possibilities  of  further  progress.  The  traditions  of 
the  Colony  are  opposed  to  any  rapid  advance  in  this 
direction,  but  native  educationists  will  doubtless  in  time 
establish  their  claim  to  more  sympathetic  consideration. 
At  present  the  urgent  needs  are  for  more  adequate  grants- 
in-aid,  the  establishment  and  support  of  institutions  for 
higher  education,  especially  for  teachers,  and  the  provision 
of  facilities  for  industrial  training. 


§6.  The  Orange  River  Colony 

Since  about  1835  a  number  of  missionary  societies, 
of  whom  the  Berlin  and  Wesleyan  Societies  were  the 
pioneers,  have  been  carrying  on  schools  in  this  colony.  In 
1878  the  Government  recognised  the  value  of  educational 
work  by  making  a  grant  of  ^45  to  the  schools  established 

'  The  Zoutpansberg  schools  have  been  placed  under  a  sub-inspector. 


172  EDUCATION  [chap. 

by  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  at  Witzies  Hoek  ;  and  the 
tribe  of  Paulus  Mopeli  consented  to  pay  a  special  tax  of 
3^.  6d}  from  each  hut-owner  towards  the  support  of  these 
schools,  the  tax  being  collected  for  the  mission  by  the 
commandant.  In  1889  the  Volksraad  also  made  grants  of 
;f  30  and  £^0  respectively  to  the  Berlin  Society's  schools  at 
Bethany  and  the  Wesleyan  school  at  Thaba'  Nchu  ;  and 
these  schools,  with  the  schools  at  Witzies  Hoek,  were  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Education  Department.  Since 
the  late  war  the  Government  has  shown  more  active 
interest  in  the  subject.  It  has  established  an  industrial 
school  for  girls  at  Thaba'  Nchu,  where  plain  cooking, 
sewing,  and  laundry  work  are  taught,  and  it  has  made 
lump  grants  to  various  churches  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  schools  which  they  are  respec- 
tively carrying  on.  The  total  grants  distributed  in  this 
way  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  amounted 
to  ^1,700.  Over  a  hundred  schools  were  thus  assisted 
during  the  year,  with  an  average  attendance  of  8,933 
children.  The  natives  themselves  are  fast  awakening  to 
the  advantages  of  education.  In  July  1906  Mr.  Hugh 
Gunn,  the  Director  of  Education,  informed  the  Legis- 
lative Council  that  the  natives  were  determined  to  have 
education  whether  the  Government  provided  it  or  not ; 
and  that  they  willingly  paid  more  in  school  fees  than 
the  whites.  Their  eagerness  for  education,  he  stated, 
was  pathetic.^ 

§  7.  Rhodesia 

In  i860  the  London  Missionary  Society  opened  a 
station  at  Imyati,  and  it  is  now  carrying  on  several  schools 

'  The  amount  is  now  \os.  A  tax  of  a  similar  kind  is  in  force  at 
Thaba'  Nchu.  See  Report  of  the  Director  of  Education  for  1906-7, 
p.  24. 

*  Reuter's  report  in  the  Daily  News,  of  July  21,  1906. 


VI] 


MISSIONS  IN  RHODESIA 


for  natives,  including  an  industrial  training  institution  at 
Hopefountain.  Little  educational  work  was  attempted 
among  the  natives  by  other  agencies  until  the  Jesuits, 
between  1890  and  1894,  established  a  mission  station  at 
Chishawasha,  which  has  now  become  an  important 
educational  institution,  at  which  special  attention  is  given 
to  gardening  and  agriculture,  and  instruction  in  various 
trades.  Subsequently  the  Jesuits  opened  a  large 
day-school  at  Empandeni,  at  which,  as  at  Chishawasha, 
prominence  is  given  to  industrial  training.  A  flourish- 
ing industrial  institution  was  also  established  about 
fifteen  years  ago  by  the  American  Board  of  Colonial 
and  Foreign  Missions  at  Mount  Silinda,  on  a  site 
selected  by  Mr.  Rhodes,  which  is  still  the  headquarters 
of  that  mission.  At  this  institution,  which  comprises 
boarding-  and  day-schools,  a  sawmill  and  industrial 
plant  of  considerable  value  have  been  set  up,  and  good 
technical  instruction  of  various  kinds  is  given,  including 
horticulture.  The  same  society  has  a  day-school  at 
Chikore,  at  which  successful  manual  training  is  provided. 
During  recent  years  educational  work  has  also  been 
carried  on  by  the  Church  of  England  and  by  the  Wesleyan, 
Dutch  Reformed  and  American  Methodist  Churches.  At 
the  S.  Augustine's  native  college  (Church  of  England),  at 
Penhalonga,  much  time  is  devoted  to  farming,  gardening, 
brick-making,  and  building. 

The  Government  has  supported  the  missions  by  making 
them  grants  of  land,  and  since  1899  it  has  given  some 
financial  assistance.  But  until  1907  the  mission  schools 
could  obtain  grants-in-aid  only  on  complying  with 
stringent  conditions  as  to  industrial  training,  the  teach- 
ing of  English,  and  the  attendance  of  scholars.  Instruction 
in  farming,  gardening,  and  building,  or  other  work  has  been 
given  in  some  of  the  better  class  schools,  but  the  cost  of 
teaching  trades,  except  at  a  few  special  institutions,  is 


174 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


extremely  difficult.  Missionaries  also  have  not  always 
found  it  easy  to  secure  native  teachers  able  to  give  the 
required  instruction  in  English,  especially  in  districts 
where  little  English  is  spoken.  Only  three  schools  were 
successful  in  1906  in  obtaining  grants-in-aid.  In  the 
following  year  the  Government  issued  new  regulations 
framed  so  as  to  enable  a  larger  number  of  schools  to  share 
in  the  grants.  Under  these  regulations  thirty  schools  be- 
came entitled  during  the  year  to  receive  assistance  from 
the  Government ;  and  it  was  anticipated  that  the  number 
of  aided  schools  would  be  increased  to  forty-three  in  1908. 
The  total  amount  of  the  Government  grants  during  1907 
was  £7^7.  In  addition,  a  sum  of  £^0  was  contributed 
to  a  coloured  school  at  Bulawayo.  The  Government  has 
sought  to  encourage  the  training  of  native  girls  in  domestic 
work,  and  in  three  schools  are  provided  facilities  for  such 
training. 

The  increased  attention  on  the  part  of  the  Government 
to  native  education  will  no  doubt  make  the  schools  more 
efficient,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  future  grants-in- 
aid  may  be  made  on  a  more  liberal  scale.  Dr.  Duthie,  the 
Director  of  Native  Education,  informed  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission  four  years  ago  that  the  Government  hoped,  as 
revenue  improved,  to  establish  a  better  educational  system. 
By  the  changes  effected  in  1907  an  important  step  has  now 
been  taken  towards  the  fulfilment  of  this  hope.  Much  still 
remains  to  be  done.  The  foundations  of  a  more  satis- 
factory system  have,  however,  been  laid. 

The  natives  are  already  beginning  to  show  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  schools.  "  Amongst  the  younger 
generation,"  writes  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Etheridge,  the  principal 
of  the  S.  Augustine's  native  college,  "  there  is  a  great 
desire  for  education.  Every  vacancy  for  the  next  year  is 
already  filled  here.  We  could  easily  double  our  numbers 
if  we  had  the  means  and  accommodation."     He  states 


vi]  NEED  OF  SCHOOLS  IN  RHODESIA  l75 

that  scholars  at  S.  Augustine's  pay  an  entrance  fee  of  £2) 
on  entering  the  school,  and  that  the  college  is  largely 
maintained  by  their  manual  work  on  the  farm.  "  I  do  not 
think,"  he  says,  "  that  at  present  (owing  to  increased  taxa- 
tion) they  could  contribute  more."  In  some  of  the  other 
schools  the  pupils  pay  fees  varying  from  6d.  to  2s.  a 
month. 

Among  the  natives  of  Rhodesia  are  visible  the  same 
signs  of  progress  as  are  seen  in  other  parts  of  South 
Africa.  Mr.  Taylor,  the  Chief  Native  Commissioner  for 
Matabeleland,  in  his  report  for  1903-4,  draws  attention 
to  this  forward  tendency  and  the  increasing  need  of 
education  : 

Owing  to  the  rapid  march  of  civilisation  in  this 
Protectorate  (he  writes)  the  development  of  the  country 
by  means  of  railways,  and  the  establishment  of  a  fully 
organised  Administration,  the  progress  of  the  natives 
has  been  more  marked  than  in  any  other  part  of  South 
Africa. 

This  is  exemplified  on  every  hand,  but  notably  in 
ready  compliance  with  legislation,  in  the  growth 
already  of  the  habit  of  work,  in  the  extension  and 
improvement  of  agricultural  operations,  and  in  the 
growing  appreciation  of  the  value  of  money. 

Much,  however,  requires  to  be  done  in  the  direction 
of  education,  which  infuses  self-respect  and  discipline 
of  mind  and  body,  while  dissipating  ignorance.  Good 
work  is  being  done  under  this  head  by  many  of  the 
missions,  especially  by  those  which  recognise  in  in- 
dustrial training  a  civilising  agent  of  the  highest 
value.  As  I  pointed  out  last  year,  it  is  indispensable. 
In  this  connection  I  would  make  special  mention  of 
the  excellent  churches  and  schools,  built  entirely  by 
local  natives  under  skilled  European  guidance  at  the 
London  Missionary  Society's  stations  of  Hopefountain 
and  Dombadema  ;  and  also  of  the  efforts  to  improve 
agricultural  methods  which  is  a  speciality  of  the 
Church  of  England's  Mission  on  the  Bembesi  River. 
I  am  convinced  that  it  is  in  this  direction — i.e.  in  the 


176 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


sphere  of  stock-farming  and  agriculture,  the  natural 
occupation  of  the  natives — that  early  efforts  to  elevate 
them  should  be  made  ;  for  so  development  will  lead 
on  to  a  gradual  assimilation  of  civilisation  in  other 
phases,  a  sounder  method  than  rude  attempts  to  graft 
uncongenial  occupations  suddenly  upon  their  lives. 
Time  and  patient  effort  may  be  trusted  to  broaden 
the  natives'  field  of  vision  whilst  improvement  is 
sought  upon  their  own  ground  first. 

§  8.  The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate 

The  London  Missionary  Society  has  established  schools 
at  five  of  the  principal  towns  and  in  some  outlying  districts. 
At  Serowe,  the  new  town  to  which  Khama  has  moved  his 
people,  the  Society  has  a  school  with  an  enrolment  of 
about  140  pupils,  but  none  of  the  classes  are  above 
Standard  III.  There  is  a  similar  school  at  Kanye  in 
Bathoen's  country,  and  a  poll-tax  of  is.  a  year  is  levied 
by  the  chief  himself  for  educational  purposes.  Schools 
have  also  been  carried  on  by  the  Lutheran  and  Dutch 
Reformed  Mission  and  by  some  Ethiopian  bodies  ;  and 
a  native  minister  has  a  school  near  Lake  Ngami  with 
about  a  hundred  boys  and  girls.  The  Bechuanas  who  desire 
higher  education  have  usually  gone  to  Lovedale  or  Morija, 
the  Kuruman  school  having  been  closed.  But  the  London 
Missionary  Society  has  recently  opened  an  important 
institution,  under  the  Rev.  H.  W.  Willoughby,  at  Tiger's 
Kloof,  near  Vryburg,  for  training  teachers  and  providing 
industrial  instruction,  which  should  prove  of  great  value  to 
Bechuana  boys  from  the  Protectorate. 

The  Government  gives  the  London  Missionary  Society 
and  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  financial  assistance  for 
their  schools  ;  and  during  1906-7  £7^0  was  granted  for  this 
purpose,  including  a  contribution  for  the  Vryburg  institution. 
On  the  whole,  the  progress  of  education  in  the  Protectorate 
has  not  been  satisfactory,  although  there  has  been  a  con- 


vi]  DEFECTS  OF  NATIVE  EDUCATION  1 77 

siderable  demand  for  the  Sechuana  publications  which  the 
London  Missionary  Society  has  issued,  and  a  large  number 
of  the  natives  are  said  to  read  easily  and  to  make  use  of  the 
post-office  to  communicate  with  their  friends.  It  may  be 
hoped  that  the  opening  of  the  Vryburg  institution  will 
supply  a  useful  stimulus ;  but  the  Bechuanas,  as  a  rule, 
do  not  seem  to  possess  the  robust  qualities  that  make 
for  rapid  progress. 

§  9.  Summary 

Considering  the  difficulties  under  which  the  educational 
work  has  been  carried  on  in  the  various  colonies,  the 
missionaries  have  achieved  remarkably  successful  results. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  evident  that  the  instruction  given 
in  many  of  the  schools  is  ill-adapted  to  the  needs 
of  native  children.  The  education  generally  has  been 
too  "  bookish."  Sufficient  attention  has  not  always  been 
given  to  the  development  of  character.  The  training  of 
eye  and  hand  has  too  often  been  neglected  ;  many  of  the 
school-books  are  not  well  adapted  to  native  childi'en  ;  and 
the  premature  use  of  English  as  the  medium  of  instruction 
has  greatly  increased  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  children 
to  grasp  the  new  ideas  presented  to  them,  and  has  led  to 
much  fruitless  learning  by  rote.  It  was  natural  that  the 
missionaries,  when  faced  by  the  difficult  problem  of  edu- 
cating native  children,  should  generally  have  adopted  the 
educational  methods  with  which  they  were  familiar,  with- 
out sufficiently  considering  whether  a  system  designed  for 
the  educational  needs  of  white  children  was  adapted  to 
the  different  requirements  of  the  natives.  It  was,  how- 
ever, very  difficult  for  them  to  do  otherwise.  Their 
financial  position  made  the  assistance  of  the  various 
Governments  indispensable,  and,  in  order  to  obtain  grants- 
in-aid,  it  was  necessary  to  comply  with  the  regulations  of 

12 


178 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


the  Education  Departments,  which  have  prescribed 
practically  the  same  courses  for  native  children  as  for  white. 
This  is  now  recognised  to  have  been  a  serious  error  ;  but 
at  the  present  stage  it  is  not  easy  to  rectify  it,  for  the 
natives,  with  their  keen  ambition  to  imitate  the  white  man, 
set  great  value  on  a  European  education  and  would  resent 
any  attempt  to  deprive  them  of  it.  Still,  it  has  become 
clear  that,  unless  some  change  is  made,  native  education 
will  continue  to  produce  defective  and  inadequate  results ; 
and  there  has  been  great  need  that  the  question  should 
be  thoroughly  investigated  with  a  view  to  placing  the 
educational  systems  of  the  various  colonies  on  a  more 
effective  and  uniform  basis.  An  important  step  in  this 
direction  was  taken  by  the  South  African  Native  Affairs 
Commission  of  1903-5.  The  Commissioners  obtained 
evidence  from  leading  missionaries  engaged  in  educational 
work,  from  officials  of  the  Education  Departments  in  the 
various  colonies,  and  from  a  number  of  magistrates  and 
others,  including  natives,  representing  many  shades  of 
opinion  on  educational  matters  ;  they  inspected  Lovedale 
and  other  important  institutions  ;  and,  as  the  result  of  their 
inquiries,  they  came  to  the  following  conclusions  : 

"  that  education  has  been  beneficial  to  the  natives  of 
South  Africa  and  that  its  effect  upon  them  has  been 
to  increase  their  capacity  for  usefulness  and  their  earning 
power ;  " 

that  compulsory  education  for  natives  is  not  advisable, 
and  that  no  system  of  general  public  undenominational 
education,  independent  of  existing  missionary  organisations, 
should  be  undertaken  at  present ; 

that  there  is  "  need  generally  for  more  liberal  total 
grants-in-aid  of  native  education  "  ;  and  a  majority  of  the 
Commissioners  were  of  opinion  that  the  same  general 
support  that  is  given  to  elementary  education  should  be 
extended  to  some  form  of  industrial  training,  and  that 


VI]  NATIVE  AFFAIRS  COMMISSION'S  REPORT  1 79 

recognition  and  aid  should  be  given  to  native  schools 
not  under  European  control,  if  they  comply  with  the 
official  regulations  ; 

that  local  contributions  are  more  satisfactorily  collected 
in  the  form  of  a  rate  for  educational  purposes  than  by 
the  payment  of  school  fees  or  the  collection  of  voluntary 
subscriptions  by  headmen  ; 

"that  any  local  demand  for  native  education  not 
otherwise  provided  for  should  be  met  by  the  creation  of 
a  fund  to  be  administered  or  not,  as  circumstances  permit, 
by  a  local  board  or  committee,  and  to  be  raised  by  means  of 
a  rate  levied  upon  the  natives  in  the  area  concerned,  such 
rate  to  count  in  lieu  of  school  fees  to  those  who  pay  the 
rate";  and  that  in  such  cases  Government  aid  should  be 
given. 

And,  as  matters  of  immediate  practical  possibility,  the 
Commissioners  recommend  : 

"  the  continuance  of  Government  grants-in-aid  of 
native  elementary  education  ; " 

"  that  special  encouragement  and  support  by  way  of 
grants-in-aid  be  given  to  such  schools  and  institutions  as 
give  efficient  industrial  training  ;  " 

"  that  a  central  native  college  or  similar  institution  be 
established,  and  aided  by  the  various  States,  for  training 
native  teachers  and  in  order  to  afford  opportunities  for 
higher  education  to  native  students  ;  " 

"  that  it  should  be  recognised  as  a  principle  that  natives 
receiving  educational  advantages  for  themselves  or  their 
children  should  contribute  towards  the  cost : — in  the  matter 
of  elementary  education  and  industrial  training  by  payment 
of  school  fees  or  a  local  rate,  and  as  to  higher  education  by 
payment  of  adequate  students'  fees  ;  " 

"  that,  where  possible,  in  schools  for  natives  there  should 
be  instruction  in  the  elementary  rules  of  hygiene  ;  " 

"  that,  where  it  is  possible,  workshops  and  school  farms 


l8o  EDUCATION  [chap. 

in  connection  with  elementary  native  schools  should 
receiv  e  a  special  measure  of  encouragement  and  support ;  " 

"  that  the  question  of  the  curriculum  for  native  schools 
should  be  dealt  with  by  a  conference  composed  of  educa- 
tional experts  and  men  of  experience  among  the  natives," 
and  "that  moral  and  religious  instruction  should  be  given  in 
all  native  schools  " ;  that  the  native  language  should  be  used 
as  the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  lower  standards,  English 
being  treated  as  a  separate  study  ;  that  the  text-books  and 
reading  lessons  in  the  native  language  should  "  impress  on 
the  minds  of  the  pupils,  among  other  useful  matters,  simple 
scientific  and  sanitary  principles,  temperance,  and  the 
elementary  rules  of  hygiene." 

In  support  of  their  recommendation  that  the  education  of 
the  natives  should  in  the  main  be  left  to  voluntary-  agencies 
as  in  the  past,  the  Commissioners  point  out  that  "  there 
would  be  a  distinct  loss  in  the  separation  of  secular  in- 
struction from  moral  and  religious  influences,"  and  that 
"  the  cost  of  any  general  scheme  for  establishment  of 
undenominational  schools  for  native  children  would  be 
prohibitive."  But  they  acknowledge  the  need  of  some 
further  organisation  in  places  where  no  voluntary  school 
has  been  provided,  and  of  increased  Government  grants. 

While  emphasising  the  importance  of  manual  and  indus- 
trial training,  the  Commissioners  recognise  that  advanced 
technical  instruction  can  only  be  given  with  advantage 
at  a  few  specially  equipped  institutions,  and  a  minority 
of  them  were  of  opinion  that  all  technical  instruction  be- 
yond simple  manual  training  should  be  treated  as  a  separate 
course,  apart  from  elementary  education.  The  minority 
are  supported  in  this  respect  by  Mr.  Sargant,  and,  con- 
sidering the  difficulty  and  expense  of  teaching  European 
trades,  it  seems  at  least  doubtful  whether  a  combination  of 
the  elementary  school  and  the  workshop  is  practicable  or 
desirable.     Further  assistance  for  technical  education  is 


VI] 


USE  OF  NATIVE  LANGUAGES 


i8r 


much  needed,  for  instruction  of  this  kind  involves  heavy- 
expenditure,  and  missionary  societies  do  not  always 
appreciate  its  importance,  and  perhaps  naturally  regard  it 
as  somewhat  outside  the  scope  of  their  work.  The  manual 
training  at  the  elementary  schools,  while  an  essential  part 
of  the  course,  might  be  of  a  comparatively  simple  character, 
designed  to  train  the  eye  and  hand  and  to  develop  habits  of 
application,  but  limited  to  such  matters  as  gardening  and 
agriculture  and  familiar  native  industries  {e.g.  the  making 
of  baskets  and  water-pitchers,  bead-work,  and  the  stitching 
of  skins,  with  sewing  and  knitting  for  girls). 

The  recommendation  of  the  Commissioners  that  the 
native  languages  should  be  substituted  for  English  as  the 
medium  of  instruction  in  the  lower  standards,  is  of  special 
value,  for  the  practice  of  giving  instruction  in  English  is 
probably  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  so  many  of  the 
children  leave  school  without  having  acquired  even  the 
rudiments  of  useful  knowledge.  The  failure  of  the  natives 
in  the  higher  educational  standards  has  often  been  com- 
mented on  ;  it  has  perhaps  not  been  sufficiently  considered 
how  far  this  failure  has  been  due  to  the  premature  use  of 
English,  combined  with  defective  teaching  and  unsuitable 
school-books  in  the  elementary  schools.  And  the  native 
languages  have  a  special  educational  value,  which  should 
not  be  overlooked.  "  They  are  splendidly  built,"  writes  the 
Rev.  H.  A.  Junod,  in  a  paper  addressed  to  the  Superintendents 
of  Education  in  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  River 
Colony  "  they  possess  a  wonderful  richness  in  grammatical 
forms  and  ways  of  expressing  ideas.  They  are  the  best  in- 
heritance which  their  forefathers  have  left  to  the  actual 
natives  of  these  countries.  When  he  speaks  his  vernacular, 
the  Zulu,  the  Thonga,  is  a  man.  When  he  speaks  a  Euro- 
pean language,  he  is  too|often  a  caricature.  Why,  therefore, 
is  the  study  of  those  languages  so  much  abandoned,  if  not 
entirely  overlooked,  in  most  of  the  South  African  schools  ? 


1 82  EDUCATION  [CHAP, 

It  is  placed  only  in  Standards  I.  to  1 1 .  ;  it  seems  that  it  must 
be  put  out  of  the  way  as  soon  as  possible,  to  be  replaced 
entirely  by  English.  I  quite  agree  that  the  natives  must 
learn  English,  that  the  possession  of  it  is  a  wonderful  means 
of  development ;  but  they  are  Bantu  none  the  less,  and  ought 
not  to  despise  their  beautiful  mother-tongue.  I  think  they 
ought  to  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  its  grammatical 
structure.  It  is  the  best  way  for  them  to  accustom  them- 
selves to  grasp  abstract  ideas,  in  remaining  on  their  own 
ground  ;  and  my  experience  has  shown  me  that  there  is  no 
better  intellectual  exercise  than  parsing  a  sentence  of  their 
own  tongue  in  a  terminology  which  must  try  to  be  as 
genuine  as  possible."  Not  only  with  regard  to  the  use  of 
the  native  languages,  but  in  reference  to  other  matters 
as  well,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  curricula  will  be  devised  to 
meet  the  special  needs  of  native  children.  In  many  ways 
it  may  be  advisable  to  differentiate  between  the  education 
given  in  the  native  and  in  the  white  schools.  The  children 
of  tribal  natives  need  special  training  in  view  of  their  super- 
stitions, the  conditions  of  their  home-life,  and  the  change 
to  unfamiliar  surroundings  for  which  they  have  to  be  pre- 
pared. Native  children  also  have  special  aptitudes  and 
qualities,  which  ought  to  be  carefully  developed.  In  the 
case  of  the  detribalised  natives  any  substantial  variation 
from  the  ordinary  European  curriculum  may  be  difficult  in 
view  of  their  desire  to  have  the  same  education  as  the 
whites  ;  but,  at  any  rate  for  tribal  natives,  it  may  be  well 
to  introduce  a  somewhat  different  system,  and  special 
care  should  be  taken  to  cultivate  characteristic  tribal  gifts 
and  virtues,  such  as  eloquence,  imagination,  fortitude,  and 
obedience  to  law. 

The  Commissioners'  recognition  of  the  need  of  State  aid 
for  the  provision  of  higher  education  for  natives  at  a 
central  college  is  a  notable  fact  in  the  progress  of  native 
education.     Hitherto   the   Colonial   Governments  have 


Vll  THE  INTER-STATE  NATIVE  COLLEGE  1 83 


refused  to  assist  higher  education,  except  for  the  purpose 
of  training  native  teachers,  and  the  Commissioners* 
proposal,  if  carried  out  effectively,  will  remove  a  real 
grievance,  for  at  present  the  natives  who  desire  and  are 
willing  to  pay  for  higher  education  have  considerable 
reason  for  dissatisfaction.  The  scheme  was  warmly 
supported  by  the  late  Dr.  Stewart  of  Lovedale,  and  great 
efforts  have  been  made  to  ensure  its  fulfilment.  An 
executive  committee  was  formed  by  the  leading  natives  in 
King  William's  Town,  with  Mr.  J.  W.  Weir  as  chairman  ; 
meetings  in  support  of  the  project  were  held  by  the 
natives  in  the  various  colonies  ;  and  in  December  1905,  a 
few  days  after  the  death  of  Dr.  Stewart,  a  representative 
convention,  attended  by  about  a  hundred  and  sixty 
delegates  from  Cape  Colony,  Basutoland,  and  the  Trans- 
vaal, met  at  Lovedale  to  concert  measures  to  bring  the 
matter  before  the  various  Governments  in  a  practical 
form.  At  this  meeting  a  petition  to  the  High  Com- 
missioner and  the  Governors  of  Cape  Colony  and  Natal 
in  support  of  the  proposed  college  was  approved  ;  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  obtaining  signatures  and  for  raising 
a  guarantee  fund  ;  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
submit  to  the  various  Governments  a  scheme  for  acquiring 
a  suitable  site  for  the  new  college.  The  movement  has 
now  made  such  progress  that  its  success  seems  to  be 
assured.  The  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  the  natives  have 
"  surprised  even  those  who  know  them  best."  ^  Meetings 
have  been  held  in  many  parts  of  South  Africa  approving 
the  scheme,  and  by  February  1907  a  fund  of  between 
i^40,ooo  and  ;^"50,ooo  had  been  raised  or  promised  by  the 
natives  and  their  European  supporters,  including  a  con- 
tribution of  1 0,000  voted  by  the  Transkeian  General 
Council.  Churches  and  missionary  societies,  laying  aside 
sectarian  differences,  have  expressed  their  readiness  to 
'  The  Christian  Express  of  December  i,  1906,  p.  274. 


1 84  EDUCATION  [chap. 

co-operate  in  the  working  of  the  college  ;  and  the  Cape 
Government  has  approached  the  other  Colonial  Govern- 
ments, through  the  High  Commissioner,  to  secure  their 
co-operation  in  contributing  to  its  support.  It  is  under- 
stood that  these  Governments  have  expressed  their 
willingness  to  assist,  and  that  a  commission  will  probably 
be  appointed,  representing  the  contributing  Governments 
and  the  native  subscribers,  to  report  as  to  the  practical 
steps  to  be  taken  for  the  establishment  and  working  of 
the  new  institution.  Great  care  will  no  doubt  be  needed 
in  working  out  the  details  of  the  scheme ;  and  it  has  yet 
to  be  seen  whether  a  sufficient  number  of  students  capable 
of  taking  advantage  of  an  institution  of  this  character 
will  be  forthcoming.  A  site  near  Lovedale  has  now  been 
selected  for  the  new  college,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
various  Governments ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  a  better 
choice  could  be  made.  Lovedale  has  long  been  the  chief 
centre  of  the  native  educational  movement,  and  without  the 
unique  influence  of  Dr.  Stewart  and  the  practical  demon- 
stration which  he  supplied  in  the  Lovedale  classes  that  his 
educational  ideals  were  based  on  a  sound  estimate  of  the 
capabilities  of  the  natives,  the  establishment  of  any 
adequate  institution  for  their  higher  education  might  well 
have  proved  impracticable. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  how  important  a  factor 
the  native  school  has  become  in  the  social  and  economic 
development  of  South  Africa.  It  is  estimated  that  at  the 
present  time  over  150,000  native  and  coloured  children 
are  receiving  education,  and  this  number  will  doubtless 
increase  rapidly  as  the  desire  for  education  spreads  among 
the  tribal  natives.  The  embittered  controversies  which 
marked  the  early  days  of  the  missionary  movement  are 
now  gradually  passing  into  oblivion ;  the  Governments  of 
all  the  colonies  are  giving  the  mission  schools  increasing 
assistance  ;  and  the  officials  of  the  Education  Departments 


VI]  NECESSITY  OF  NATIVE  EDUCATION  185 

and  many  of  the  magistrates  take  a  keen  interest  in  their 
progress.  Nevertheless,  racial  prejudices  have  hitherto 
been  strong  enough  to  prevent  even  the  most  progressive 
of  the  Colonial  Governments  from  adopting  as  energetic 
a  policy  as  the  importance  of  the  question  demands. 
This  is  greatly  to  be  regretted,  for  an  efficient  system  of 
native  education  is  essential  to  the  development  of  South 
Africa.  It  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  natives,  who  are  now  drawn  in  increasing 
numbers  to  the  towns  and  other  centres  of  industry. 
These  natives  are  accustomed  to  live  under  the  authority 
of  their  chiefs  and  the  restraints  and  moral  standards 
which  tribal  custom  enforces.  They  are  now  removed 
from  these  influences  and  brought  suddenly  into  contact 
with  the  unfamiliar  freedom  of  civilised  life.  This 
contact  exposes  them  to  temptations  which  they  are  ill 
prepared  to  resist,  and  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  the 
reports  of  the  magistrates  too  often  tell  a  deplorable  tale 
of  the  demoralisation  of  fine  tribal  natives  in  the  towns. 
Against  these  dangers  there  has  been  no  more  effective 
protection  for  the  native  than  the  education  and  religious 
training  provided  in  a  good  mission  school ;  and  this 
training  may  well  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable 
stage  in  the  transformation  of  tribal  natives  into  wage- 
earners  at  industrial  centres.  Again,  education  is  necessary 
to  enable  natives  to  render  the  services  which  are  needed 
from  them  both  by  the  whites  and  by  their  own  people, 
and  by  so  doing  to  improve  their  own  position.  A  native 
who  has  a  knowledge  of  English,  who  can  read  and  write, 
and  has  received  some  manual  training,  is  incomparably 
more  useful  than  the  rude  tribal  Kafir  even  as  an  ordinary 
labourer.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  education  unfits  the 
natives  for  manual  work.  This  statement  is  misleading. 
Natives  who  have  made  satisfactory  progress  in  the  schools 
no  doubt  often  try  to  turn  their  education  to  account  by 


1 86  EDUCATION  [chap. 

obtaining  more  remunerative  employment  than  that  of  a 
manual  labourer.  But  most  native  scholars  acquire  only 
an  extremely  elementary  education,  and,  although  some  of 
them  get  exaggerated  ideas  of  their  accomplishments  and 
affect  to  despise  manual  work,  very  many  make  excellent 
labourers.  Moreover,  as  Sir  Henry  Elliot  pointed  out 
before  the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  when  education 
becomes  more  general  the  ordinary  educated  native  will 
have  less  temptation  to  regard  himself  as  on  a  higher  level 
than  his  fellows.  And  it  must  be  remembered  that  natives 
are  needed  for  many  kinds  of  work  for  which  education  is 
essential.  Many  of  them  are  employed  by  the  whites 
as  messengers,  policemen,  artisans,  hospital  assistants, 
clerks,  teachers,  interpreters,  and  in  similar  occupations  ; 
and  amongst  their  own  people  there  is  an  increasing  need 
of  native  doctors,  nurses,  and  artisans.  The  employment 
of  whites  in  these  capacities  would  often  be  impracticable 
in  view  of  the  high  wages  which  they  require,  and  it  is 
desirable  that  a  sufficient  number  of  properly  qualified 
natives  should  be  forthcoming.  Education  also  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  providing  motives  for  industry.  Frequent 
complaints  are  made  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  an 
adequate  supply  of  native  labour.  It  is  often  said  that 
the  native  is  indolent  and  must  be  taught  the  "  dignity  of 
labour."  Gradually,  however,  it  is  being  recognised  that 
the  true  cause  of  the  difficulty  is  to  be  found,  not  in  any 
inherent  defect  in  the  character  of  the  natives,  but  in  the 
absence  of  a  sufficient  motive  to  engage  in  continuous 
work.  Uneducated  natives  can  satisfy  their  primitive 
needs  with  little  exertion  ;  and  if  they  are  content  with 
their  present  earnings,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  labour  is 
not  likely  to  disappear.  But  the  progress  of  education 
tends  inevitably  to  raise  the  standard  of  living,  and  by 
creating  fresh  needs  supplies  a  powerful  incentive  to 
labour.     And   from   the   point   of  view   of  the  white 


vi]  NECESSITY  OF  NATIVE  EDUCATION  1 87 

colonists  there  are  other  reasons  of  still  greater  weight 
for  educating  the  natives.  Nothing  could  be  more  un- 
worthy, or  in  the  long  run  more  disastrous,  than  that  the 
whites  in  South  Africa  should  regard  the  natives  as  a 
mere  "labour  asset."  If  this  view  prevailed — and  it  is  to 
be  feared  that  it  still  has  some  advocates — it  would 
inevitably  result  in  the  demoralisation  of  the  white 
communities.  "  We  have  to  bear  in  mind,"  writes  Sir 
Marshal  Clarke,  "  that  where  two  races  on  different  planes 
of  civilisation  come  into  such  close  contact  as  do  the 
whites  and  blacks  in  South  Africa,  they  act  and  react  on 
each  other,  and  where  the  higher  race  neglects  its  duty  to 
the  lower  it  will  itself  suffer."  ^  Neglect  of  this  duty  has 
many  serious  consequences,  but  perhaps  none  more 
disastrous  than  its  effects  on  the  white  children. 
Mr.  P.  A.  Barnett,  the  late  Director  of  Education  in 
Natal,  in  his  report  for  1904,  draws  special  attention  to 
this  vital  matter.  "  Of  the  baser  and  more  cruel  con- 
tamination," he  says,  "  liable  to  result  from  the  intimate 
domestic  contact  of  little  European  children  with  people 
whose  life,  thoughts,  and  speech  are  habitually  at  a  low 
level,  it  is  hard  to  speak  in  the  measured  terms  that 
decorum  requires.  One  may  have  the  most  real  respect 
for  the  Zulu  folk  in  their  places,  and  in  regard  to  the  stage 
of  their  development :  but,  apart  from  the  hard  pressure 
of  social  difficulty,  here,  where  so  many  influences  fight 
against  the  refinement  and  elevation  of  life,  little  Zulu 
drudges  are  the  worst  trainers  of  youth  that  we  can 
employ."  As  Mr.  Barnett  justly  says,  "  the  mental  and 
moral  development  of  the  white  children  is  inextricably 
involved  in  that  of  the  black. ' 

The  South  African  colonists  appear  to  be  realising, 
though  somewhat  tardily  and  slowly,  the  force  of  these 

'  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  vol.  xiii.  part  II.  (Cd. 
2378),  Appendix  B  4, 


i88 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


considerations,  and  the  recent  developments  of  the 
education  movement  suggest  that  a  change  of  pubHc 
opinion  on  the  subject  is  gradually  taking  place.  The 
last  few  years  have  in  fact  been  a  time  of  remarkable 
advance  in  many  directions.  The  desire  for  education 
has  been  spreading  more  widely  among  the  natives. 
They  have  been  active  in  promoting  the  establishment 
of  new  institutions  for  higher  education  and  industrial 
training,  and  they  have  contributed  freely  to  the  funds 
required  for  these  purposes.  They  have  also  shown  a 
more  self-reliant  spirit  than  in  the  past  and  a  new 
capacity  for  organisation.  The  native  churches  have 
already  established  a  number  of  elementary  day-schools, 
and  have  been  sending  boys  to  negro  colleges  in  America 
for  higher  education.  No  doubt  this  new  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  natives  has  in  it  a  strong  element  of 
racial  feeling,  but,  if  wisely  directed,  it  contains  much 
promise  for  the  future.  And  the  forward  movement 
has  not  been  confined  to  the  natives.  The  value  of 
the  educational  work  has  received  official  recognition  in 
the  report  of  the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  and  the 
recommendations  of  the  Commissioners  have  provided  a 
basis  for  a  more  progressive  educational  policy.  The 
attitude  which  the  Colonial  Governments  have  recently 
adopted  indicates  that  they  are  beginning  to  realise  the 
importance  of  securing  an  efficient  system  of  native 
education.  In  the  Transvaal  native  schools  have  for  the 
first  time  been  recognised  and  assisted  by  the  State.  In 
the  Orange  River  Colony  there  has  been  a  considerable 
extension  of  the  system  of  granting  aid  already  in  force. 
And  in  both  these  colonies  the  Education  Departments 
have  begun  to  take  active  steps  to  promote  the  efficiency 
of  the  schools.  In  the  other  colonies  the  grants-in-aid 
have  been  increased,  and  a  gradual  improvement  seems  to 
be  taking  place  in  the  character  of  the  schools.  And, 


vi]  MR.  SARGANT'S  report— LOVEDALE  1 89 

lastly,  by  the  decision  of  the  Colonial  Governments  to 
co-operate  in  supporting  the  proposed  native  college,  the 
need  of  providing  facilities  for  higher  education  has  at 
length  been  recognised. 

NOTES 

Mr.  E.  B.  Sarganfs  Report  on  Native  Education  in  South 
Africa. — Since  the  above  chapter  was  written  the  third  part  of 
this  report,  dealing  with  education  in  the  Protectorates,  has  been 
published  ^.  It  contains  an  extremely  interesting  analysis  of  the 
special  problems  of  native  education  in  Basutoland  and  the 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  and  a  number  of  valuable  recom- 
mendations for  placing  the  native  schools  on  a  more  satisfactory 
basis.  It  will  no  doubt  be  carefully  studied  by  those  who  are 
directly  concerned  in  educational  work,  and  there  is  much  in  it 
which  claims  the  attention  of  a  wider  circle  of  readers. 

The  Lovedale  Institution. — According  to  the  report  of  this 
institution  for  1907,  the  number  of  pupils  on  the  roll  in  that  year 
was  as  follows  : 


Boys^  side — 

Native  boarders,  pupils   323 

,,  ,,       apprentices  115 

„     day-pupils  55 

Europeans  14 

 507 

Girls'  side — 

Native  boarders,  pupils   109 

„         ,,       apprentices  55 

,,     day-pupils  -32 

Europeans  10 

  206 

Elementary  School   18 1 

Total   894 


The  pupils  were  divided  as  follows  between  the  various 
departments  of  the  institution  : 


'  Colonial  Reports,  Miscellaneous,  No.  52  (Cd.  41 19). 


190 


EDUCATION 


[chap. 


Natives. 


College  Department — 
Matriculation  Class 
School  Higher  Class- 
Senior  Division 
Junior  Division 

Normal  Department — 
Third  year  . 
Second  year  . 
First  year 

Section  A 

Section  B 

Section  C 

School  Department — 
Boys,  Standard  VI. 

V. 
IV. 

Girls,  Standard  VI. 

V. 
IV. 

Elementary  School — 
Standard   III.  . 

II.      .  . 
I.  . 

Sub-standard  B  . 

A   .  . 

Separate  Class — 
Standard  II. 
Sub-Standard 

Industrial  Departments — 
Girls'  work  . 
Waggon-making 
Printing 
Bookbinding 
Shoemaking 
Carpentry 
Technical 
Office  . 
Book  Store 
Hospital 
Post  Office 


Boarders.  Day  Pupils. 
Boys.   Girls.   Boys.  Girls. 

7      —      —  — 


Europeans. 


Total. 


25 
23 


16 
17 


71 
61 
34 


19 


25 
17 
12 


IS  I 

8  — 

3  — 


Boys.  Girls. 
I     -  8 


33 
30 


—  22 

-  38 


34  -  I  — 

35  —  I  — 
—     22        —  — 


II 

22 
II 


9 
14 
9 


7  IS 

12  IS 

9  7 

II  24 

21  33 


—  SI  -  -  _  _  51 

II  —  —  —  —  —  II 

14  —  —  —  —  —  14 

3  —  —  —  —  —  3 

4  —  _  _  _  _  4 

38  -  _  _  _  _  38 

29  —  —  —  —  —  29 

5  —  —  —  —  —  5 

3  —  —  —  —  —  3 

5  4  —  _  _  _  9 

3  —  —  —  —  —  3 


71 


-  35 

-  36 

-  22 

—  153 

-  84 

-  83 

-  46 
I  35 

-  31 
I  22 

—  301 

-  38 

-  35 

-  19 

-  35 

-  54 

—  181 

3  II 
5  7 

—  18 


Totals 


.  465    164  115 


126 


14 


170 

"894" 


VI] 


LOVEDALE 


191 


During  the  year  2  pupils  (out  of  4  presented)  passed  the 
Matriculation,  4  (out  of  19  presented)  passed  the  University 
School  Higher  Examination,  and  67  (out  of  146  presented) 
passed  the  Government  Normal  Examination,  of  whom  14  were 
in  the  third-year,  17  in  the  second-year,  and  36  in  the  first-year 
classes  respectively. 

The  fees  paid  by  natives  during  the  year  amounted  to 
^5,503  9^.  Td.  The  total  sum  so  paid  by  natives  since  1870  is 
no  less  than  ;^83,988  ^s.  lod. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT :  NATIVE 
CHURCHES  1 

One  sign  of  the  growth  of  a  more  independent,  progressive 
spirit  among  the  natives  is  the  formation  during  recent 
years  of  a  number  of  self-governing  native  churches.  All 
or  most  of  these  churches  owe  their  origin  to  secessions 
from  European  missions.  Their  racial  character  has  caused 
no  little  anxiety  among  the  white  communities  in  South 
Africa.  The  effects  of  the  movement  are  likely  to  be  felt 
far  beyond  church  affairs.  It  is  worth  while  to  examine 
its  origin  and  progress,  and  to  discover  so  far  as  possible 
the  objects  which  the  new  native  churches  have  in  view. 

The  beginning  of  the  movement  may  be  traced  to  the 
formation,  about  the  year  1886,  of  a  small  native  church  in 
Tembuland,  known  as  "  the  Church  of  the  Tembus,"  by 

'  Many  of  the  particulars  given  in  this  chapter  have  been  obtained 
from  a  paper  on  "The  Ethiopian  Movement,"  read  by  the  Rev.  F.  B. 
Bridgman,  at  the  Natal  Missionary  Conference  in  July  1903,  and  from 
a  number  of  articles  on  Ethiopianism  pubhshed  in  The  Christian 
Express  (Lovedale)  during  the  years  1901-3.  Much  information  with 
regard  to  various  phases  of  the  movement  is  contained  in  the  evidence 
given  before  the  South  African  Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5, by 
missionaries,  leaders  of  native  churches,  and  others.  The  account  of  the 
Order  of  Ethiopia  is  based  mainly  on  two  articles  in  The  East  and  the 
^F<?^/(January  1903  and  October  1904)  by  the  Rev.  F.W.  Puller,  formerly 
chaplain  to  the  Order,  and  the  Rev.  W.  M.  Cameron  (the  present 
Coadjutor-Bishop  of  Cape  Town),  also  a  former  chaplain  and  now  Acting 
Provincial  of  the  Order,  and  on  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Dwane's  evidence  before 
the  Native  Affairs  Commission. 

192 


CHAP.  VIl] 


THE  ETHIOPIAN  CHURCH 


193 


an  ex-Wesleyan  preacher  named  Nehemiah  Tile.  Tile's 
followers  afterwards  became  Baptists,  and  are  popularly 
known  as  Ethiopians.  They  are  few  in  number,  and  the 
secession  would  be  of  little  importance  had  it  not  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  a  much  wider  movement  some  four 
years  later.  Some  Wesleyan  natives  at  Johannesburg 
desired  to  undertake  evangelical  work.  The  Wesleyan 
authorities  did  not  see  their  way  to  sanction  this  ;  and  the 
natives,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Rev.  M.  M.  Makone, 
formed  themselves  into  a  separate  body  on  Wesleyan  lines. 
They  called  their  new  organisation  "  The  Ethiopian  Church," 
and  this  name  has  given  the  whole  separatist  movement 
its  popular  designation  of  "  Ethiopianism."  In  1894  they 
were  joined  by  another  secessionist  from  the  Wesleyan 
Church,  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Dwane,  who  speedily  became  one 
of  their  leading  members.  Mr.  Dwane  was  a  nephew  of 
the  chief  of  the  Amantinde,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Gaikas.  His 
father  quarrelled  with  the  chief  and  removed  to  another 
sub-tribe,  the  Amagqunukwebe,  where  he  became  a  coun- 
cillor of  their  chief,  Kama,  and  his  daughter  married 
Kama's  son  or  brother.  Mr.  Dwane  was  born  after  his 
father  removed  to  the  Amagqunukwebe,  about  the  year 
1848.  As  a  boy  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Mr.  Lamp- 
lough,  a  Wesleyan  missionary,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Wesleyan  institution  at  Healdtown.  Here  he  was  trained 
as  a  teacher,  and  for  three  years  he  acted  as  a  schoolmaster. 
He  then  began  work  as  a  missionary,  and  in  1881  he  was 
ordained.  For  about  thirteen  years  he  discharged  his 
duties  as  a  Wesleyan  minister,  and  in  1894  he  was  in  charge 
of  a  mission  station  at  Mount  Coke,  near  King  William's 
Town.  In  that  year  he  went  to  England,  with  the  approval 
of  his  superiors,  and  collected  money  for  an  institution 
connected  with  his  mission.  On  returning  to  South  Africa 
he  reported  the  results  of  his  journey  to  the  Wesleyan 
authorities  at  Cape  Town.    Difficulties  then  arose  with 

13 


194    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :    NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

regard  to  the  money  which  he  had  received.  The  Wes- 
leyan  authorities  insisted  that  by  the  rules  of  their  body 
it  should  be  paid  into  their  general  fund.  Mr.  Dwane 
maintained  that  it  should  be  applied  for  the  purposes  of 
the  institution  for  which  it  had  been  collected.  He  paid  it, 
as  requested,  into  the  general  fund,  but  after  this  controversy 
he  left  the  Wesleyans  and  joined  the  Ethiopian  Church 
with  a  considerable  number  of  followers.  He  soon  dis- 
covered that  his  new  church  lacked  efficient  organisation 
and  discipline  ;  and  in  1896  he  visited  the  United  States 
on  a  deputation  to  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  (generally  known  as  the  A.M.E.  Church),  in 
the  hope  that  these  defects  might  be  remedied  by  an 
amalgamation  with  that  body.  After  examining  the  work  of 
this  negro  church  in  various  states  and  making  arrangements 
for  the  proposed  union,  he  returned  to  South  Africa  as  the 
general  superintendent  of  the  A.M.E.  Church  in  that 
country,  and  at  a  large  representative  conference  of  the 
Ethiopians  held  at  Lesseyton  in  April  1897  he  received 
a  number  of  the  ministers  and  delegates  present  into  the 
A.M.E.  Church.  The  work  of  affiliation  proceeded  rapidly, 
and  in  1898  Bishop  Turner,  the  senior  bishop  of  that 
church,  came  to  South  Africa  to  inspect  the  work  of  the 
Ethiopian  Church  and  to  complete  arrangements  for  the 
amalgamation.  During  the  six  or  eight  weeks  which 
he  spent  in  the  country  he  consecrated  Mr.  Dwane  as 
a  vicar-bishop,  confirmed  his  action  at  the  Lesseyton 
conference,  organised  annual  conferences  at  Pretoria  and 
Queenstown,  and  ordained  about  sixty  local  preachers  as 
deacons  and  elders.  On  his  return  to  America,  his  col- 
leagues appear  to  have  made  some  difficulty  about  ratifying 
these  acts  ;  and  the  question  of  the  union  was  postponed 
until  their  next  quadrennial  conference.  In  1898  Mr.  Dwane 
again  visited  America,  but  he  failed  to  obtain  the  official 
recognition  he  desired.    During  this  visit  he  became  dis- 


VII]     ETHIOPIANS  AND  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  195 

satisfied  as  to  the  validity  of  the  orders  in  the  A.M.E. 
Church,  and  with  regard  to  the  strained  relations  which  he 
found  existing,  not  only  between  whites  and  blacks,  but 
also  between  the  lighter  and  darker  coloured  members  of 
that  church.  These  features  of  the  A.M.E.  Church,  or,  as 
his  critics  suggest,  its  delay  in  confirming  his  appointment 
by  Bishop  Turner,  revived  doubts  which  he  had  originally 
felt  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  proposed  amalgamation.  On 
returning  to  South  Africa  he  expressed  his  dissatisfaction 
to  his  fellow  Ethiopians,  advising  them,  if  they  wished  an 
organisation  of  their  own,  to  apply  for  assistance  to  "  the 
people  on  the  spot,  who  brought  the  Gospel  to  you."  In 
1899,  by  the  advice  of  the  Rector  of  Queenstovvn,  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  Archbishop  of  Cape  Town  an  application 
that  the  Ethiopian  Church  should  be  given  a  distinct 
organisation  within  the  Anglican  Church.  Before  dealing 
with  this  application,  the  Archbishop  desired  to  be  satisfied 
that  it  was  approved  by  the  members  of  the  Ethiopian 
Church.  Mr.  Dwane  accordingly  arranged  a  conference  of 
that  body  at  Queenstown.  The  war  prevented  represen- 
tatives from  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  River  Colony 
attending  this  meeting.  But  all  the  ministers  of  the 
Ethiopian  Church  in  Cape  Colony  appear  to  have  been 
present,  and  the  following  resolutions  were  passed  with  only 
four  dissentients,  who  at  once  left  the  conference : 

1.  That,  having  regard  to  the  great  importance  of 
Christian  unity,  and  being  convinced  that  the  scriptural 
and  historical  safeguard  of  the  same  is  the  Catholic 
Episcopate,  this  conference  resolves  to  petition  his 
Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Cape  Town  and  the  other 
Bishops  of  the  Church  of  the  Province  of  South  Africa 
to  give  our  body  a  valid  Episcopate  and  Priesthood, 
and  to  make  such  arrangements  as  may  be  found 
possible  to  include  our  body  within  the  fold  of  the 
Catholic  Church  on  the  lines  indicated  in  our  Superin- 
tendent's letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Cape  Town. 

2.  That  this  conference  accepts  and  embraces  the 


196    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

Doctrine,  Sacraments,  and  Discipline  of  Christ,  as  the 
same  are  contained  in  Holy  Scripture,  according  as 
the  Church  of  England  has  set  forth  the  same  in  its 
Standards  of  Faith  and  Doctrine. 

These  resolutions  were  communicated  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Cape  Town,  who  instituted  careful  inquiries  as  to  the 
character  of  the  Ethiopian  body.  In  1900  a  synod  was 
held  at  Grahamstown,  at  which  the  Archbishop  and  the 
Bishops  of  the  province  met  Mr.  Dwane  and  the  other 
Ethiopian  representatives  to  discuss  the  application  made 
by  the  Queenstown  conference.  The  result  was  an  agree- 
ment that  an  Order,  to  be  called  "  The  Order  of  Ethiopia," 
should  be  formed  within  the  Church  of  England,  with  a 
Provincial  and  Chapter,  and  with  the  Archbishop  as 
Visitor.  The  Chapter  was  to  have  power,  with  episcopal 
approval,  to  frame  a  constitution  and  rules.  The  property 
of  the  Order  was  to  be  vested  in  trustees  upon  trusts  to 
be  sanctioned  by  the  Visitor  after  consultation  with  the 
Provincial.  Each  member  was  to  become  a  member  of 
the  Anglican  Church  before  admission  to  the  Order. 
Suitable  ex-ministers  were  to  be  licensed  as  readers, 
catechists,  and  sub-deacons ;  and  arrangements  were  to  be 
made  for  preparing  candidates  for  orders.  If  at  any  time 
a  bishop  should  be  appointed  over  the  Order,  he  was  to 
exercise  episcopal  functions  under,  and  at  the  request  of, 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  The  Order  was  to  be  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  but  not  of  the  parochial  clergy. 
Since  1899  Mr.  Dwane  and  the  other  Ethiopian  ministers 
had  been  conducting  services  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Anglican  bishops,  but  had  ceased  to  administer  the 
sacraments.  Mr.  Dwane  was  now  admitted  into  the 
Church  of  England,  and  was  confirmed  and  appointed 
Provincial  of  the  Order,  and  four  months  later  he  was 
ordained  as  a  deacon.  Three  other  members  of  the  Order 
have  subsequently  been  admitted  to  the  diaconate,  and 


vu] 


THE  ORDER  OF  ETHIOPIA 


197 


about  twelve  have  received  catechists'  licences  after  careful 
preparation  under  white  chaplains.  More  than  fourteen 
hundred  natives  connected  with  the  Order  have  been 
confirmed,  and  Mr.  Dwane  estimated  that  in  1903  there 
were  about  five  thousand  members  of  the  Order  in  Cape 
Colony. 

The  great  majority  of  the  Ethiopians  who  took  part  in 
the  conference  at  Queenstown  joined  the  Order,  but  the 
dissentient  minority  refused  to  accept  the  decision  of  that 
conference,  and  remained  affiliated  to  the  A.M.E.  Church. 
Owing  to  the  late  war  Mr,  Dwane  was  unable  to  com- 
municate with  the  members  of  the  Ethiopian  Church  in 
the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  River  Colony  while  the 
negotiations  with  the  Archbishop  of  Cape  Town  were  in 
progress,  and  after  the  war  the  Order  was  not  able  to 
carry  on  work  in  these  colonies.  Most  of  these  Ethiopians 
have  therefore  probably  remained  members  of  the  A.M.E. 
Church.  The  Order  appears  to  have  no  representatives 
in  Natal. 

The  Order  has  hitherto  been  in  somewhat  troubled 
waters.  There  has  been  considerable  friction  with  the 
A.M.E.  Church,  and  a  chapel  at  Debe  has  been  success- 
fully claimed  by  the  minority  of  the  congregation,  who 
refused  to  follow  Mr.  Dwane.  There  has  also  been  trouble 
with  a  hostile  faction  in  the  Amagqunukwebe  tribe  ;  and 
Dr.  Cameron,  the  Coadjutor-Bishop  of  Cape  Town,  who  for 
some  time  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Order,  stated  that  on 
several  occasions  his  students  were  reduced  to  the  verge  of 
starvation.  The  work  of  the  Order  has  been  further 
hampered  by  want  of  money  and  by  the  inadequate 
education  of  its  local  preachers.  Many  of  these  preachers, 
however,  seem  anxious  to  obtain  the  training  needed  to 
fit  them  for  their  work.  Dr.  Cameron  stated  in  1904  that 
"  what  they  lacked  in  knowledge  they  made  up,  with  few 
exceptions,  in  application,  shrewdness,  and  keenness  to 


198    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

learn  "  ;  and  the  present  chaplain,  the  Rev.  W.  A.  Good- 
win, reports  :  "  I  found  my  students  very  keen  Churchmen, 
exceedingly  reverent,  ready  evangelists,  and  astonishingly 
careless  of  money  advantages.  They  reminded  me  of  the 
Preaching  Friars."  ^  Of  late,  unfortunate  differences  have 
arisen  between  Mr.  Dwane  and  the  Bishop  of  Grahams- 
town,  who  has  taken  a  warm  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
Order,  and  the  Coadjutor-Bishop  of  Cape  Town  is  now  the 
Acting  Provincial.  But  Mr.  Dwane,  though  no  longer 
the  Provincial,  is  still  a  member  of  the  Chapter. 

Racial  feeling  is  no  doubt  the  primary  cause  of  the 
Ethiopian  movement,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  loyalty  of  the  members  of  the  Order.  "  I  know 
intimately  all  the  leading  members  of  the  Ethiopian 
Order,"  wrote  another  of  its  former  chaplains,  the  Rev. 
F.  W.  Puller,  in  1903,  "and  I  can  assert  from  certain 
knowledge  that  they  are  perfectly  loyal."  And  Dr. 
Cameron,  writing  in  the  following  year,  stated  that  he 
knew  of  no  accusation  of  disloyalty  against  members  of 
the  Order  which  had  stood  the  test  of  investigation.  "  On 
the  other  hand,"  he  points  out,  "  at  the  annual  conference 
of  the  Order,  held  in  January  1903,  a  vote  of  loyalty  and 
congratulation  to  the  King  on  His  Majesty's  then  recent 
coronation  was  spontaneously  proposed  and  passed  with 
acclamation."  Although  some  members  of  the  Order 
would  have  preferred  a  more  aggressive  policy,  Mr.  Dwane 
has  endeavoured  to  avoid  undue  interference  with  other 
religious  bodies.  His  offer  to  close  an  Ethiopian  chapel 
at  Queenstown  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  S. 
Andrew's  native  church,  though  considerately  declined  by 
the  vicar,  was  an  instance  of  his  caution  in  this  respect. 
The  members  of  the  Order  were  described  by  Dr.  Cameron 
as  "  invariably  respectful  to  Europeans,"  and  whereas  the 

'  See  an  article  in  The  Mission  Field  of  March  1908  on  "  The 
Ethiopian  Order  in  South  Africa,"  by  the  Rev.  W.  A.  Goodwin. 


VIl] 


THE  A.M.E.  CHURCH 


199 


leaders  of  the  A.M.E.  Church  seem  to  be  in  favour  of 
inter-marriage  between  Europeans  and  natives,  Mr.  Dwane 
is  said  to  be  opposed  to  any  such  blending  of  the  races. 
Apparently  Mr.  Dwane  does  not  seek  the  position  of  a 
political  leader.  He  informed  the  Native  Affairs  Com- 
mission that  he  did  not  encourage  his  followers  to  break 
away  from  their  chiefs,  and  that  personally  he  took  no 
part  in  politics,  even  to  the  extent  of  exercising  his  right 
to  vote.  The  Order,  as  a  body,  would  seem  to  be  carrying 
on  religious  and  educational  work  without  ulterior  political 
motives ;  it  has  recognised  its  need  of  white  supervision  ; 
and  it  has  received  Government  grants  for  some  of  its 
schools.  Although  the  actions  of  other  Ethiopians  have 
probably  brought  upon  it  some  undeserved  discredit,  we 
are  not  aware  that  any  serious  charge  has  been  made 
good  against  its  members,  and  there  is  no  justification  for 
placing  difficulties  in  their  way  so  long  as  their  efforts  are 
directed  to  the  true  objects  of  a  religious  organisation. 

When  Mr.  Dwane  and  his  followers  joined  the  Anglican 
Church,  the  acts  of  Bishop  Turner  with  regard  to  the 
union  of  the  Ethiopian  Church  with  the  A.M.E.  Church 
had  still  to  be  ratified  by  the  latter  body.  The  ratification 
took  place  in  1900,  and  in  the  following  year  Bishop 
Coppin  was  sent  to  South  Africa  to  supervise  the  work 
of  the  church  in  that  country.  The  affiliation  of  the  two 
churches  was  thus  completed,  and  thereby  the  A.M.E. 
Church  secured  a  definite  footing  in  South  Africa.  This 
close  connection  between  the  Ethiopians  and  the  negroes 
of  the  Southern  States  is  viewed  with  grave  misgiving  by 
many  South  Africans,  who  fear  that,  by  stimulating  the 
spirit  of  racial  jealousy  and  exclusiveness,  it  may  have  a 
sinister  influence  on  the  future  of  South  Africa. 

The  A.M.E.  Church  owes  its  origin  to  a  secession 
in  1787  from  the  Methodist  Society  of  Philadelphia  of  its 
coloured  members.    The  secessionists  became  an  organised 


200    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

body  in  1816,  and  Richard  Allen  was  consecrated  as  their 
first  bishop.  A  coloured  minister  who  took  part  in  this 
secession  had  been  ordained  by  Bishop  White  of  the 
Anglican  Church  of  America,  a  fact  which  they  considered 
established  the  validity  of  their  episcopate.  While  adopt- 
ing an  episcopal  organisation,  they  retained  the  methodist 
doctrine.  Thus  constituted,  the  church  gained  numerous 
adherents.  It  is  estimated  that  it  now  has  over  5,000 
ministers  and  about  700,000  communicants  in  America, 
and  that  it  holds  property  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000,000. 
It  has  carried  on  missions  in  Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone, 
but  apparently  it  had  no  immediate  intention  of  under- 
taking work  in  South  Africa  until  it  was  invited  to  do 
so  by  the  Ethiopian  Church.  In  South  Africa  it  v/orks 
as  a  mission  church.  About  ten  or  fifteen  preachers 
are  assigned  to  a  district,  which  is  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  a  presiding  elder,  and  the  bishop  has  to  deal 
with  any  cases  that  are  considered  to  require  his  personal 
attention.  The  ministers  and  presiding  elders  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop,  who  acts  in  consultation  with  his 
presiding  elders  and  leading  ministers.  In  1903  Bishop 
Coppin  estimated  that  his  church  had  about  200  ministers 
in  South  Africa,  including  evangelists  who  had  not  been 
ordained,  and  about  5,000  or  6,000  members.  Most  of  these 
were  in  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  River  Colony,  but 
as  the  Governments  of  these  colonies  refused  Bishop  Coppin 
permission  to  enter  them,  he  was  unable  to  exercise  any 
effective  supervision  over  this  portion  of  his  charge.  He 
visited  Rhodesia ;  but  it  would  appear  from  the  evidence 
given  by  his  successor,  Bishop  Smith,  before  the  Native 
Affairs  Commission  in  1904  that  the  A.M.E.  Church  had 
then  been  forbidden  to  work  in  that  country,  and  that  they 
were  also  prohibited  from  entering  Natal,  Basutoland,  and 
Bechuanaland.  "  Therefore,"  Bishop  Smith  informed  the 
Commissioners,  "  so  far  as  those  colonies  are  concerned, 


vu]  THE  A.M.E.  CHURCH  201 

I  regard  it  that  our  church  has  ceased  to  exist,  so  far 
as  any  direct  control  or  supervision  on  the  part  of  the 
bishop  here,  or  on  the  part  of  the  bishop  at  home,  is 
concerned,  thus  leaving  us  with  but  Cape  Colony  in 
which  to  operate."  The  A.M.E.  Church  can  hardly  be 
held  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  its  representatives  in 
colonies  from  which  its  bishop  is  excluded,  except  in  so 
far  as  the  too  hasty  ordination  of  some  of  its  ministers 
may  have  caused  mischief  by  placing  ill-qualified  men  in 
positions  of  serious  responsibility  in  those  colonies.  Some 
of  these  men  have  no  doubt  done  serious  harm  to  other 
religious  bodies  and  to  the  reputation  of  their  own  church, 
but  the  official  policy  of  that  church  must  be  judged  by  its 
proceedings  in  Cape  Colony,  where  its  bishop  has  liberty  to 
exercise  his  powers  of  supervision. 

Bishop  Coppin  assured  the  Native  Affairs  Commission 
in  emphatic  terms  that  his  church  desired  to  promote  loyalty 
to  the  Governments  of  the  colonies  and  friendly  relations 
with  the  white  races.  He  denied  that  it  contemplated 
any  scheme  for  the  immigration  of  negroes  from  the  United 
States.  He  also  recognised  that  much  had  been  done  for 
the  natives  in  South  Africa  in  providing  religious  teaching 
and  education,  and  in  other  ways  ;  and  he  stated  that  he- 
preferred  not  to  obtain  members  from  other  churches.  No 
doubt  he  was  in  a  position  of  some  difficulty  when  he  came 
to  South  Africa.  He  was  excluded  from  personal  com- 
munication with  the  greater  portion  of  his  church  ;  and 
some  of  his  ministers  seem  to  have  been  quite  unfitted 
for  their  duties.  He  does  not,  however,  appear  to  have 
been  very  successful  in  establishing  better  discipline  or  a 
more  healthy  spirit  amongst  his  people.  He  informed  the 
Native  Affairs  Commission  that  he  had  himself  ordained 
very  few  ministers.  But  he  admitted  that  even  these 
were  not  all  fit  to  act  as  marriage-officers,  and  amongst 
them  was  William  Mokalapa,  who  subsequently  became 


202    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

notorious  for  his  attempt  to  wreck  M.  Coillard's  mission 
in  Barotseland.  Although  Bishop  Coppin  stated  that  he 
was  opposed  to  proselytising  from  other  churches,  it  would 
seem  that  even  in  Cape  Colony  he  failed  to  prevent  his 
preachers  from  doing  so.  And  it  must  be  admitted  that 
their  action  was  hardly  unauthorised  ;  for  the  extravagant 
language  of  the  missionary  organ  of  the  A.M.E.  Church, 
The  Voice  of  Missions^  of  which  Bishop  Turner  was  the 
editor,  was  eminently  calculated  to  encourage  conduct 
of  this  kind.  This  paper  spoke  of  the  day  when  the 
natives  would  "  whip "  the  British  "  until  they  reach  the 
banks  of  the  Thames,"  and  urged  that  foreign  missionary 
associations  should  consider  the  best  means  of  transferring 
their  work  in  Africa  "  to  the  society  best  fitted  for  the 
proper  and  most  successful  development  of  it."  The 
aggressions  of  the  A.M.E.  Church  and  suspicions  of  the 
loyalty  of  its  members  inevitably  brought  it  into  grave 
disrepute  in  South  Africa,  and  its  leaders  at  length  realised 
that  their  agents  had  gone  too  far.  Accordingly,  in  1904 
a  declaration  was  issued  by  thirteen  bishops,  including 
Bishop  Turner,  containing  the  following  statements  as  to 
the  objects  of  their  church  : 

In  all  of  our  movements  in  South  Africa  we  shall 
seek  to  help  and  not  to  hinder  ;  to  assist  in  advancing 
enlightened  and  healthful  influences  and  not  to  impede 
them  ;  to  foster  and  encourage  loyalty  and  obedience 
to  lawfully  constituted  authority  and  not  to  breed 
disaffection  and  anarchy. 

In  relation  to  all  religious  denominations,  our 
position  is  that  of  fraternity  and  co-operation  in  any 
and  every  way  that  will  help  to  bring  the  heathen 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God. 

It  is  no  part  of  our  business  to  concern  ourselves 
with  politics.  We  shall  strictly  confine  our  endeavours 
to  civilisation,  education  and  Christianisation.  Our 
theory  in  regard  to  the  education  of  the  natives  is — 
the  rudiments  of  an  education  for  all,  industrial  training 
for  the  many,  and  a  college  education  for  the  talented  few, 


vii]  THE  A.M.E.  CHURCH  20$ 

Bishop  Smith  spoke  in  similar  terms  before  the  Native 
Affairs  Commission.  He  informed  the  Commissioners  that 
Bishop  Turner's  "  principle  of  '  Africa  for  the  Africans,'  and 
all  that  kind  of  thing,  none  of  us  take  seriously."  He  stated 
also  that  he  regarded  proselytising  from  other  churches 
as  "  wicked  and  a  waste  of  time  and  of  men  "  ;  and  that 
he  noted  with  regret  that  some  of  his  ministers  had  been 
engaged  in  undermining  the  work  of  old-established 
missions,  as  the  object  of  his  church  was  to  reach  the 
heathen,  not  the  people  who  are  civilised.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  these  views  may  prevail,  and  that  the  A.M.E. 
Church,  by  adopting  a  policy  more  in  accord  with  its 
official  declarations,  may  yet  find  its  place  in  the  fellow- 
ship of  South  African  churches. 

From  the  time  of  its  arrival  in  South  Africa  the  A.M.E. 
Church  has  given  special  attention  to  educational  work. 
It  has  established  a  number  of  schools,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  the  Bethel  Institute  at  Cape  Town.  At 
this  institution  there  are  about  400  students,  and  the 
principal,  the  Rev.  A.  H.  Attaway,  is  the  head  of  the 
educational  department  of  the  A.M.E.  Church  in  South 
Africa,  and  acted  as  general  superintendent  of  the  Church 
during  Bishop  Coppin's  absence  in  America.  This  institute 
was  referred  to  in  T/ie  Voice  of  Missions  in  bombastic 
terms,  but  apparently  it  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  com- 
plying with  the  requirements  of  the  Education  Department 
so  as  to  obtain  a  Government  grant.  Mr.  Attaway,  how- 
ever, takes  a  thoroughly  practical  view  of  the  objects 
of  native  education.  "  It  is  my  view  in  regard  to  the 
education  of  the  masses  of  the  natives  of  the  country," 
he  told  the  Native  Affairs  Commission,  "that,  so  far  as 
the  classes  are  concerned,  they  will  gradually  find  their 
places  according  to  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest 
and  as  a  matter  of  selection.  And,  so  far  as  the  masses 
are  concerned,  it  is  my  idea,  as  I  have  said  before,  that 


204    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

they  ought  so  to  be  taught  and  prepared  as  to  do  the 
manual  labour  of  the  country.  I  believe  that  if  some 
practical  scheme  could  be  placed  before  them,  in  order 
to  direct  their  education  in  this  way,  they  would  accept 
it  and  they  would  do  that  which  is  best  for  them. 
The  native  has  natural  aspirations,  but  he  does  not  know 
in  many  cases  really  what  he  requires.  He  sees  the  effect 
of  civilisation  upon  others,  and  he  is  very  anxious,  as 
far  as  possible,  to  keep  pace  with  those  things.  But, 
as  I  see  it,  his  salvation  lies  in  his  availability  as 
a  labouring  asset."  Mr.  Sargant,  in  his  preliminary 
report  on  native  education,  refers  to  an  attempt  which 
Mr.  Attaway  was  making  to  establish  a  village  settle- 
ment. For  this  purpose  he  had  purchased  a  farm  in  the 
Western  Province  of  Cape  Colony  and  had  built  an  indus- 
trial school ;  but  the  scheme  was  then  still  in  an  initial 
stage.  Besides  carrying  on  schools,  the  A.M.E.  Church 
has  assisted  a  number  of  natives,  desiring  higher  education, 
to  go  to  negro  colleges  in  the  United  States — a  practice 
which  at  any  rate  has  had  the  beneficial  effect  of  stimulating 
interest  in  South  Africa  with  regard  to  the  provision  of 
better  facilities  in  that  country  for  the  higher  education 
of  natives.  For  financial  support,  the  A.M.E.  Church 
in  South  Africa  depends  upon  contributions  from  its 
members  and  others,  supplemented  by  funds  supplied 
by  its  general  missionary  department  in  the  United 
States.  Small  fees  are  also  received  from  the  children 
in  its  schools. 

Co-operation  between  its  American  and  South  African 
members  has  been  by  no  means  easy.  Often  better 
educated,  accustomed  to  different  social  conditions,  and 
unfamiliar  with  South  African  languages,  the  American 
negroes  have  not  always  been  able  to  work  smoothly  with 
their  South  African  colleagues  ;  while  the  latter,  although 
recognising  their  need  of  educated  men,  have  endeavoured 


viij  SECESSIONS  FROM  VARIOUS  CHURCHES  20$ 


to  check  the  importation  from  America  of  ministers  whom 
they  regarded  as  unfit  for  work  in  South  Africa. 

The  A.M.E.  Church  is  not  the  only  organisation  of 
American  negroes  that  has  shown  an  active  interest  in 
South  Africa.  Some  years  ago  the  American  Baptist 
Church  of  coloured  people  sent  the  Rev.  C.  S.  Morris 
to  visit  South  Africa  on  their  behalf  Mr.  Morris  claimed 
that  during  his  visit  he  received  into  this  Baptist  Church 
1,200  members,  representing  17  congregations.  This 
statement  is  hardly  calculated  to  instil  full  confidence 
in  the  soundness  of  his  methods  ;  and,  like  Bishop  Turner, 
he  may  not  have  appointed  ministers  with  sufficient 
regard  to  their  qualifications.  Apparently  the  Church  of 
the  Tembus,  or  the  Amatile,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  have  thrown 
in  their  lot  with  this  American  Baptist  Church. 

The  organisations  to  which  we  have  referred,  with  the 
exception  of  the  American  Baptist  congregations,  owed  their 
origin  to  secessions  from  various  branches  of  the  Wesleyan 
Church,  but  other  religious  bodies,  including  even  the 
A.M.E.  Church,  have  not  been  exempt  from  similar 
tendencies.  At  present  most  of  the  seceding  bodies  are 
small  and  comparatively  unimportant;  but,  as  they  illustrate 
an  important  tendency,  and  their  history  may  throw  some 
light  on  the  difficult  question  of  the  position  to  be  accorded 
to  native  members  in  the  various  churches,  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  refer  briefly  to  some  of  the  chief  of  them. 

Of  all  these  movements  perhaps  none  has  left  a  more 
painful  memory  than  the  secession  from  the  Lovedale 
Mission  of  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  of  which 
the  Rev.  P.  J.  Mzimba  was  the  leader.  Mr.  Mzimba  was 
educated  at  Lovedale,  and  in  1875  he  was  ordained  as  a 
minister.  For  22  years  he  appears  to  have  discharged 
his  duties  faithfully.  In  1898  he  unexpectedly  resigned 
his  position.    He  made  no  complaint  of  unjust  interference 


206    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 


in  his  work  by  the  Lovedale  authorities  or  of  any  lack  of 
assistance  on  their  part,  and  the  sole  reason  he  gave  for  his 
secession  was  the  desire  to  act  independently  of  white  mis- 
sionaries. The  presbytery  considered  his  case  with  great 
care,  but  they  failed  to  induce  him  to  reconsider  his  decision. 
He  then  initiated  an  independent  native  church,  known  as 
"  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Africa,"  and  issued  circulars 
to  the  members  of  the  Free  Church  in  South  Africa  urging 
them  to  join  it.  He  and  his  followers  also  claimed  to  retain 
certain  buildings,  documents,  and  money  in  their  posses- 
sion— a  claim  which  the  Free  Church  successfully  disputed. 
A  large  number  of  natives  joined  the  new  church, 
including,  it  is  said,  two-thirds  of  the  Lovedale  congre- 
gation ;  and  Mr.  Mzimba  informed  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission  in  1903  that  it  then  comprised  6,500  com- 
municants and  about  20,000  attenders.  He  stated  that  it 
was  carrying  on  work  in  Natal  and  the  Transvaal,  as 
well  as  in  Cape  Colony,  and  that  it  had  evangelists  in  the 
Orange  River  Colony  and  Rhodesia.  He  also  said  that 
they  were  working  under  the  Presbyterian  system  of 
Church  government ;  that  they  had  ordained  four  ministers  ; 
that  they  had  established  schools ;  and  that  some  of  these 
schools  had  received  Government  grants,  and  were  super- 
vised by  committees  of  parents,  who  collected  money  for 
the  teachers'  salaries.  Mr.  Mzimba  had  been  elected  as 
moderator  or  chairman  of  the  Church  Synod,  but  neither  he 
nor  any  of  the  other  ministers  had  in  1903  been  recognised 
as  marriage-officers.  Mr.  Mzimba  informed  the  Commission 
that  he  was  not  associated  in  any  way  with  the  Ethiopian 
movement,  and  added  that  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  fellow- 
ministers  had  any  sympathy  with  it.  He  stated  that 
responsibility  stimulated  the  members  of  his  church  in 
their  work,  but  he  admitted  that  he  was  not  satisfied  with 
their  progress  and  expressed  a  desire  for  federation  with 
the  white  Presbyterians.    "  I  am  looking  forward  to  the 


VII]  SECESSIONS  FROM  VARIOUS  CHURCHES  20/ 


time,"  he  said,  "  which  I  hope  will  come,  when,  while  we 
control  our  own  church  matters  separately,  there  will  be 
incorporation  or  federation  with  the  Colonial  Presbyterian 
body." 

Before  Mr.  Mzimba  left  the  Free  Church,  there  had 
already  been  a  less  serious  secession  from  that  body, 
headed  by  the  Rev.  E.  Tsewu.  Mr.  Tsewu  also  had  been 
educated  at  Lovedale,  and  ordained  as  a  Free  Church 
minister,  but  about  nine  or  ten  years  ago  he  and  his  con- 
gregation at  Johannesburg,  in  consequence  of  some  church 
dispute,  left  the  Free  Church,  and  since  that  time  they 
have  been  managing  their  own  affairs  as  an  isolated  con- 
gregation under  the  name  of  "The  Independent  Native 
Presbyterian  Church."  In  1904  they  had  about  70  com- 
municants, and  from  200  to  300  attenders.  Mr.  Tsewu 
declared  that  his  secession  was  not  a  matter  of  white 
versus  black  ;  that  he  did  not  desire  separation  ;  and  that 
he  was  open  to  reunion. 

Another  body  of  secessionists,  known  ^as  "  The  Ethio- 
pian Catholic  Church  in  Zion,"  were  originally  members 
of  the  Church  of  England  ;  and  their  leader,  the  Rev.  S.  J. 
Brander,  who  received  his  education  at  Lovedale,  had 
been  ordained  as  a  deacon.  Their  secession  from  the 
Church  of  England  appears  to  have  been  due  mainly  to 
their  desire  to  have  an  independent  church.  At  first  they 
joined  Mr.  Makone  and  his  followers  in  founding  the 
Church  of  Ethiopia,  and,  with  them,  subsequently  became 
members  of  the  A.M.E.  Church.  Difficulties,  however, 
soon  arose  with  regard  to  the  financial  assistance  to  be 
given  by  that  church,  and  in  1904,  after  the  union  had 
lasted  about  six  years,  Mr.  Brander  and  his  people  again 
seceded  and  established  the  Ethiopian  Catholic  Church  in 
Zion,  with  its  headquarters  at  Pretoria.  Mr.  Brander  in- 
formed the  Native  Affairs  Commission  a  few  months  later 
that  his  church  then  had  a  membership  of  over  560  from 


208    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [cHAP. 

Pretoria  to  Basutoland  and  British  Bechuanaland,  with 
seven  ordained  ministers,  but  he  stated  that  he  had  not  yet 
been  recognised  as  a  marriage-officer.  He  disclaimed  any 
intention  of  acting  as  a  poHtical  leader,  and  expressed  his 
desire  to  be  under  the  control  of  Europeans.  "  I  want 
them,"  he  said,  "  as  guides  over  me  with  all  my  people." 

In  Natal  Ethiopian  tendencies  seem  to  have  been 
stimulated  by  the  wild  propaganda  of  Joseph  Booth.  In 
1896  Mr.  Booth,  who  had  been  engaged  in  missionary 
work  in  Central  Africa,  promulgated  a  scheme  to  form  a 
joint-stock  company  of  African  natives  for  carrying  on  the 
commerce  of  Africa,  and  so  securing  political  control.  His 
motto,  "  Africa  for  the  Africans,"  proved  attractive  to  a 
number  of  natives,  but  the  scheme  came  to  nothing,  owing, 
it  is  said,  to  his  hearers'  determination  to  exclude  Mr. 
Booth  himself  from  the  management. 

There  have  been  two  secessions  of  some  importance 
from  the  American  Zulu  Mission — one  headed  by  a 
preacher  at  Table  Mountain,  and  the  other  by  a  preacher 
at  Johannesburg.  These  secessions  occurred  in  1897,  and 
in  each  case  the  seceding  preacher  is  said  to  have  taken 
with  him  more  than  half  the  members  of  his  congregation. 
The  secessionists  formed  themselves  into  "  The  Zulu  Con- 
gregational Church."  The  Table  Mountain  secession  is 
attributed  mainly  to  the  refusal  of  the  preacher  to  comply 
with  the  request  of  the  mission  that  he  should  move  to 
some  other  place.  At  Johannesburg  the  native  congrega- 
tion are  said  to  have  desired  that  the  preacher  should  be 
their  head  instead  of  the  missionary,  and  other  difficulties 
arose  with  regard  to  the  holding  of  property  purchased  in 
part  out  of  money  contributed  by  the  natives.  In  1898  the 
seceding  ministers,  by  obtaining  ordination  in  an  irregular 
way,  seem  to  have  lost  the  confidence  of  some  of  their 
followers,  and  negotiations  were  opened  with  the  mission- 
aries, which  ended  in  the  Johannesburg  secessionists  re- 


VIl] 


SECESSIONS   IN  NATAL 


209 


joining  the  mission.  This  reunion,  however,  was  only 
brought  about  by  "  grave  but  inevitable  concessions  by 
the  mission,"  including  "  the  right  to  autonomy  in  accord- 
ance with  Congregational  policy."  The  Rev.  J.  A.  Wilder, 
D.D.,  informed  the  Native  Afifairs  Commission  that  the 
native  pastor  of  the  Zulu  Congregational  Church  in 
Johannesburg  was  "  a  very  aggressive  man,  very  intelli- 
gent, and  very  energetic.  He  worked  all  the  time,  day  and 
night,  and  kept  five  horses  going  looking  after  his  twenty 
stations — which  was  the  work  I  had  left,  out-stations  and 
stations — and  that  church  he  had  charge  of  developed  from 
246,  which  was  the  number  when  I  left,  to  over  600 
individual  communicants."  Dr.  Wilder  stated  that  these 
men  felt  "  that  the  missionaries  were  keeping  back  from 
them  the  privilege  of  running  their  own  churches.  They 
had  not  the  least  idea  of  any  interference  with  the  Govern- 
ment ;  there  was  not  the  least  political  thought,  so  far  as 
our  people  were  concerned." 

In  Natal  there  have  also  been  secessions  from  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  Gordon  Memorial  Mission,  and 
the  Wesleyans.  Some  of  the  secessionists  have  formed 
an  organisation  known  as  the  "  Uhlanga  Church "  (the 
National  Church),  which  apparently  does  not  bear  a  high 
reputation.  Some  followers  of  the  Rev.  —  Mbiyana,  who 
seceded  from  the  American  Mission  about  twenty-five 
years  ago,  are  said  to  remain  in  the  Noodsberg  district ; 
certain  natives  near  the  coast,  calling  themselves  "  Ethio- 
pians," have  their  headquarters  in  Durban  ;  and  in  the 
south  of  the  Colony  there  is  a  body,  connected  with  the 
American  Coloured  Baptist  Church,  whose  members  call 
themselves  the  "Amakusha"  (Cushites).  In  the  docks 
location  at  Cape  Town  there  have  been  natives  belonging 
to  the  Apostolic  Holiness  Communion ;  and  no  doubt 
other  native  churches  or  religious  societies  might  be 
enumerated.     Those  which  have  been  specifically  men- 

14 


2IO    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

tioned  represent,  however,  the  main  developments  of  the 
Ethiopian  movement,  and  the  nature  of  that  movement 
can  be  gathered  from  the  circumstances  of  their  origin  and 
the  character  of  their  work. 

Apparently  none  of  these  secessions  have  been  due  to 
doctrinal  differences,  for  the  secessionists  have  generally, 
if  not  always,  retained,  at  any  rate  for  a  time,  the  theo- 
logical views  of  their  parent  church.  Sometimes  the 
immediate  cause  of  secession  has  been  little  more  than  a 
matter  of  personal  incompatibility.  Friction  has  arisen 
between  some  native  minister  and  the  white  missionary, 
and  the  former,  to  escape  from  what  he  regarded  as  undue 
interference  from  the  missionary,  has  left  the  mission,  set 
up  a  church  of  his  own,  and  has  been  joined  by  other 
native  members.  The  missionary  naturally  regards  this 
conduct  as  ungrateful  and  disloyal,  and  witnesses  the  loss 
of  his  converts  with  something  like  dismay.  But  a  closer 
investigation  shows  that  there  is  more  in  the  movement 
than  this  personal  aspect.  Its  real  significance  lies  in  its 
racial  character.  The  idea  of  a  tribal  church  embodied  in 
the  "  Church  of  the  Tembus,"  founded  by  Nehemiah  Tile, 
has  developed  into  a  far  wider  conception,  revealing  a  new 
and  growing  sense  of  national  life.  "  The  idea  of  seces- 
sion," says  Mr.  Sargant  in  his  report  on  native  education, 
"  is  probably  not  due  only,  or  primarily,  to  a  wish  on  the 
part  of  the  native  leaders  to  manage  their  ecclesiastical 
affairs  for  themselves,  but  also  to  a  real  longing  for  national 
union  through  a  single  spiritual  head  of  the  church " ; 
and  he  points  out  that,  owing  to  the  distinctions  of  tribe 
and  language  by  which  the  natives  are  divided,  it  was 
natural  that  this  national  feeling  should  find  its  first 
expression  through  Christianity.  Similar  views  are 
expressed  by  the  Rev.  F.  B.  Bridgman  in  a  paper  on 
the  Ethiopian  Movement  read  before  the  Missionary 
Conference  in  Natal.    "  The   fact,"  he  says,  "  that  a 


vii]         THE   MISSIONARIES   AND   ETHIOPIANISM  211 


great  race,  hitherto  content  to  grovel,  has  at  last  begun 
to  aspire  is  momentous."  And  the  Coadjutor-Bishop  of 
Cape  Town,  who,  as  chaplain  to  the  Order  of  Ethiopia, 
had  special  opportunities  for  observing  the  inner  working 
and  spirit  of  the  movement,  declares  emphatically  that 
its  "  root-principle  is,  I  believe,  patriotism ;  in  other 
words,  the  self-assertion  of  a  growing  national  life."  To 
this  sudden  and  unexpected  awakening  of  racial  aspira- 
tions must  be  attributed  the  rapid  development  of  the 
movement,  which  has  so  disquieted  the  white  community, 
and  seems  to  have  astonished  no  one  more  than  the  mis- 
sionaries, who  were  unintentionally  responsible  for  it.  It 
is,  perhaps,  surprising  that  so  able  a  body  of  men  as  the 
leading  South  African  missionaries,  with  their  long  and 
intimate  experience  of  native  affairs,  should  in  this  in- 
stance have  failed  so  signally  to  read  the  signs  of  the 
times.  Had  they  gauged  the  position  more  accurately, 
it  is  conceivable  that  they  might  have  been  able  to 
direct  the  movement  into  safer  channels,  and  to  have 
averted  painful  breaches  between  native  churches  and 
their  parent  missions.  But  the  workings  of  the  native 
mind  have  often  proved  inscrutable  to  the  white  man. 
Many  of  these  missionaries  are  at  any  rate  doing  their 
utmost  to  remedy  their  mistake.  If  at  first  they  were 
dismayed  at  the  apparently  ruthless  wrecking  of  their 
missions  by  natives  whom  they  had  trained  and  trusted, 
they  are  now  facing  the  new  conditions  with  singular 
devotion  and  in  a  statesmanlike  spirit.  Setting  aside 
their  personal  feelings,  they  have  endeavoured  to  do 
justice  to  the  aims  of  the  secessionists,  and  have  sought 
to  promote  what  is  best  in  the  movement,  while  re- 
straining its  abuses  and  extravagances.  The  Con- 
ference of  Missionaries  at  Johannesburg  in  1904  refused 
to  court  popularity  by  passing  any  resolution  hostile 
to  the   establishment  of  independent   native  churches. 


212    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

and  insisted  on  the  need  of  guidance  rather  than  of  re- 
pression. Missionaries  indeed  recognise  that  the  establish- 
ment of  such  churches  is  the  ultimate  object  of  their  work, 
and  there  is  a  strong  feeling  that  some  distinction  between 
European  and  native  churches  is  desirable  in  the  best 
interests  of  both.  But  at  present  it  seems  clear  that 
sympathetic  supervision  by  a  white  missionary  or  minister 
is  generally  essential  to  the  healthy  progress  of  a  native 
church ;  and  the  premature  rejection  by  the  extreme 
Ethiopian  bodies  of  this  supervision  has  caused  serious 
injury  both  to  themselves  and  to  other  churches. 

The  missionaries  have  to  face  a  twofold  problem.  On 
the  one  hand,  they  have  to  determine  how  best  they  may 
promote  friendly  relations  with  the  independent  native 
churches,  and,  if  possible,  guide  their  action  by  wise 
counsels  and  personal  influence  ;  and,  on  the  other,  they 
have  to  consider  what  policy  they  should  adopt  towards 
the  native  ministers  and  members  of  their  own  missions 
and  churches  in  order  to  give  these  natives  scope  for  their 
legitimate  aspirations.  Any  attempts  to  influence  the 
action  of  the  native  churches  necessarily  call  for  the  exer- 
cise of  great  tact  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries.  In  these 
churches  racial  feeling  is  strong,  and  the  desire  to  show 
that  natives  are  capable  of  managing  their  own  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  makes  them  exceedingly  sensitive  with 
regard  to  any  interference  by  white  missionaries.  Never- 
theless, it  is  evident  that  these  natives  are  beginning  to 
understand  that  their  independence  has  involved  them  in 
many  difficulties  with  which  they  are  not  yet  fitted  to 
cope.  There  are  signs  that  some  at  least  of  them  recognise 
their  need  of  help  and  guidance.  "  We  find  we  want 
some  one  to  help  us  ;  we  cannot  get  on  by  ourselves,"  was 
the  explanation  given  to  the  Bishop  of  Pretoria  by  the 
representatives  of  a  body  of  about  a  thousand  Ethiopians 
who  had  applied  to  him  for  admission  into  the  Church  of 


vii]  THE   MISSIONARIES   AND    ETHIOPIANISM         21 3 


England  ;  and  in  matters  of  finance  and  church  discipline 
particularly  this  need  is  no  doubt  often  keenly  felt.  There 
is  reason,  therefore,  to  hope  that,  if  the  secessionists  are 
convinced  that  the  missionaries  have  a  genuine  and  dis- 
interested concern  for  the  welfare  of  the  native  churches, 
some  of  them  may  be  glad  to  welcome  a  missionary  in  the 
role  of  friendly  adviser. 

On  the  whole,  this  impression  is  confirmed  by  the 
results  of  the  first  efforts  of  the  missionaries  to 
establish  better  relations  with  the  independent  native 
churches.  In  July  1904  the  Conference  of  Missionaries 
at  Johannesburg  addressed  carefully  considered  repre- 
sentations to  the  heads  of  the  American  negro  denomina- 
tions with  reference  to  certain  acts  of  these  denominations 
which  constituted  the  chief  obstacles  to  co-operation 
between  them  and  the  European  missionaries.  In 
these  representations  the  Conference  referred  to  the 
"  ultimate  self-support,  self-control,  and  self-propagation  " 
of  the  native  churches  as  "  the  recognised  goal  of  mission 
work,"  and  admitted  that  the  political  aspect  of  Ethiopian- 
ism  might  have  been  exaggerated.  But  it  deplored  the 
tendency  of  the  Ethiopian  bodies  to  proselytise  in  fields 
occupied  by  other  churches,  their  ordination  of  men  unfit 
for  the  ministry,  their  lax  discipline,  their  encouragement 
of  schism,  and  the  emphasis  laid  by  them  on  distinctions 
of  colour.  The  first  response  to  this  action  by  the 
missionaries  came  from  the  Ethiopians  in  the  Transvaal 
and  Orange  River  Colony,  who  had  joined  the  A.M.E. 
Church,  but  over  whom,  it  must  be  remembered,  that 
church  had  little  or  no  official  control.  These  natives 
held  a  conference  in  Pretoria  in  August  1904,  at  which, 
after  indulging  in  abusive  references  to  some  of  the 
missionaries,  they  passed  resolutions  repudiating  the 
accusations  of  lax  discipline  and  encouragement  of  schism, 
and  declaring  that  they  viewed  with  distrust  and  had  lost 


214    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

confidence  in  the  cause  represented  by  the  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  Johannesburg  conference.  They  expressed 
their  thanks,  however,  to  the  Bishop  of  Lebombo  and  the 
Rev.  E.  Jacottet  and  a  few  others  for  "  their  true  missionary 
spirit."  M.  Jacottet,  who  had  read  a  paper  at  the  con- 
ference on  the  native  churches  and  their  organisation,  took 
the  opportunity  thus  offered  him  to  address  an  open  letter 
of  friendly  advice  to  the  assistant-secretary  of  the  Ethiopian 
conference,  in  which,  after  refusing  to  be  dissociated  from 
his  fellow  missionaries,  he  protested  against  the  unfriendly 
attitude  adopted  by.  the  A.M.E.  Church,  and  dealt 
faithfully  with  the  shortcomings  of  that  body,  explaining 
that,  while  the  missionaries  desired  to  co-operate  with  the 
native  churches,  -they  were  unable  to  do  so  until  the 
practices  to  which  they  had  referred  were  abandoned.  At 
this  stage  Bishop  Smith,  who  had  just  arrived  in  South 
Africa,  intervened  in  the  controversy.  In  a  brief  reply 
to  M.  Jacottet's  letter,  he  disowned  "  the  intemperate  and 
unchristian  language "  of  the  Pretoria  conference,  and 
requested  M.  Jacottet  to  supply  him  with  a  number  of 
copies  of  his  letter  to  send  to  the  bishops  and  general 
officers  of  his  church  in  America,  describing  it  as  "  a  most 
excellent  pamphlet."  These  incidents  show  at  least  that 
advice  from  white  missionaries,  if  tendered  in  a  sympathetic 
spirit,  is  not  always  resented  by  the  leaders  of  native 
churches,  and  they  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  new 
relations  that  are  growing  up  between  these  organisations 
and  the  white  missions.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
missionaries  will  lose  no  opportunity  of  showing  their 
interest  in  the  progress  of  the  new  churches  and  of 
winning  the  confidence  of  their  members,  for  in  hardly 
any  other  way  can  they  do  greater  service  to  the  cause 
of  racial  amity  or  more  effectively  promote  the  true  objects 
of  their  work. 

The  various  churches  have  endeavoured  to  solve  the 


vii]         STATUS  OF  NATIVES  IN  THE  CHURCHES  21$ 

problem  of  the  status  of  native  members  in  different  ways. 
The  Trappists,  Jesuits,  Marists,  and  other  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries,  keep  their  native  converts  in  a  subordinate 
position,  enforcing  a  strict  discipline  and  insisting  on  in- 
dustrial training.  "  I  noticed  in  the  church  of  the  splendid 
Trappist  mission  in  Natal,"  writes  Mr.  A.  Colquhoun,' 
"  that  the  members  of  the  Order,  the  lay  brothers,  and  the 
native  congregation,  each  had  their  special  place  in  which 
they  worshipped "  ;  and  he  points  out  that,  although  a 
native  may  sometimes  become  a  lay  brother,  the  Roman 
Catholic  bodies  "  admit  no  natives  to  their  orders,  and 
maintain  a  strictly  disciplinarian  relation  with  all  their 
converts,  never  admitting  them  to  an  equality  in  matters 
ecclesiastical."  To  this  policy  he  attributes  their  com- 
parative immunity  from  Ethiopian  secession.  The 
Protestant  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  aim  at  training 
their  native  members  in  the  management  of  church  affairs, 
and  encourage  them  to  take  an  active  part  in  spreading 
Christianity  among  their  own  people.  White  and  native 
members  usually  meet  in  separate  congregations,  but 
natives  are  appointed  as  catechists,  evangelists,  and  elders, 
and  are  even  ordained  as  ministers  and  admitted  to  the 
governing  bodies  of  those  churches. 

The  episcopal  system  of  the  Church  of  England  enables 
that  church  to  exercise  supervision  over  its  native  con- 
gregations, while  allowing  them,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Order  of  Ethiopia,  to  undertake  considerable  responsibili- 
ties ;  and  it  is  probably  due,  at  least  in  part,  to  this 
episcopal  supervision  that  the  Church  of  England  has 
escaped  Ethiopian  secessions  on  a  serious  scale.  The 
relations  between  the  white  and  the  native  members 
of  the  church  have,  however,  still  to  be  determined. 
The  Bishop  of  Pretoria  informed  the  Native  Affairs 
Commission  that  a  special  commission  had  been  appointed 
'  In  his  book  entitled  "  In  Africander  Land." 


2l6    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 


to  investigate  this  subject  ;  and  he  suggested  that  the 
solution  might  be  found  in  the  establishment  of  separate 
European  and   native   churches,  "  both   bound   to  and 
governed  by  the  Provincial  Synod,"  in  which  the  natives, 
as  well  as  the  whites,  would  be  represented,  but  with  some 
safeguard  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  whites  in  view  of 
the  overwhelming  numbers  of  the  natives.    The  Coadjutor- 
Bishop  of  Cape  Town  states  ^  that  many  of  the  leading 
clergy  in  South  Africa  are  in  favour  of  separate  church 
organisations  for  whites  and  natives ;  and  he  points  out 
that  this  policy  would  remove  many  difficulties  which  exist 
under  the  present  system.    A  minister  or  missionary  who 
is  well  fitted  to  work  among  colonists  may  not  be  qualified 
for  work  among  natives.     At  church  synods  and  con- 
ferences many  questions  of  importance  to  the  whites  are 
hardly  intelligible  to  the  natives  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
matters  which  may  be  vital  to  the  natives  are  often  not 
understood  by  the  whites.    There  is  some  anxiety  also  as 
to  whether  the  native  clergy  are  sufficiently  independent 
and  free  from  tribal  and  personal  considerations  to  take 
part  on  the  same  footing  as  their  white  brethren  in  so 
responsible  a  matter  as  the  election  of  a  bishop.  Dr. 
Cameron  suggests,  therefore,  that  it  might  be  better  for 
the  native  clergy  to  elect  their  own  bishop,  subject  to  the 
veto  of  the  native  representative  laity,  and  that  their 
bishop  should  be  a  coadjutor  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
or  possibly  to  more  than  one  diocesan.    "  The  bond  of 
unity,"  he  points  out,  "  would  remain  in  the  Archbishop 
and  the  diocesan  Episcopate  and  the  Provincial  Synod, 
in  which  both  European  and  native  diocesan  synods  might 
be  represented." 

An  instructive  object-lesson  in  methods  of  church  organi- 

*  In  the  article  on  the  Ethiopian  Movement  and  the  Order  of 
Ethiopia  in  The  East  and  the  West  (October  1904,  p.  391)  already 
referred  to. 


vii]  THE  CHURCH  OF   BASUTOLAND  21/ 

sation  is  provided  by  the  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society 
in  Basutoland.     The  native  church  which  this  Society  has 
established,  known  as  the  Church  of  Basutoland,  contained 
40,956  adherents  according  to  the  census  of  1904,  and  its 
title  shows  the  desire  of  the  Society  that  it  should  become 
the  national  church  of  the  Basuto.     The  policy  of  the 
Society  accordingly  is  to  develop  to  the  utmost  the  capacity 
of  the  native  members  to  undertake  responsible  duties. 
The  church  organisation  consists  of  the  Seboka  or  Assembly, 
the  Conference  of  European  Missionaries,  the  Synod,  and 
the  Consistories.  The  Seboka  has  been  composed  of  sixteen 
European  missionaries  and  nine  native  ministers,  and  four 
more  native  ministers  were  to  have  been  added  to  it  in  1907. 
It  decides  all  matters  affecting  the  life  of  the  church,  except 
the  status  of  missionaries  and  the  districts  in  which  they 
are  to  work.    It  also  supervises  the  primary  schools  of  the 
church  through  its  Education  Board,  consisting  of  a  secre- 
tary of  schools,  three  missionaries,  and  a  native  minister. 
The  Conference  of  Missionaries  deals  with  the  administration 
of  funds  received  from  Europe,  with  secondary  and  industrial 
education,  and  with  the  missionaries'  personal  affairs.  The 
Synod  is  an  advisory  body  meeting  every  two  years,  and 
consists  of  about  100  members,  comprising  the  missionaries 
and  native  ministers  and  delegates  from  the  various  parishes. 
It  is  intended  that  the  Synod  should  ultimately  relieve  the 
home  Society  of  its  responsibility  for  the  general  work  of 
the  church.     Below  these  bodies  there  is  in  each  parish  a 
consistory  for  the  management  of  parochial  affairs.  It 
comprises  the  local  missionary  or  native  minister,  who  acts 
as  president,  the  catechists,  and  elders  elected  by  the 
Christian  members  of  the  station  and  out-stations  from  a 
list  prepared  by  the  missionary  and  his  consistory.  Mr. 
Sargant  points  out  that  its  procedure  is  modelled  on  the 
Sesuto  custom  of  the  chief  in  khotla  :   the  proceedings 
begin  with  a  general  discussion,  and  the  president  then 


2l8    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [cHAP. 

announces  his  decision,  in  which  he  usually  follows  the 
general  opinion  of  the  consistory.^ 

How  much  may  be  gained  by  entrusting  positions  of 
responsibility  in  this  way  to  carefully  chosen  and  thoroughly 
trained  natives  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  account 
by  the  Rev.  E.  Jacottet  of  the  practical  working  of  this 
system  of  church  government.  "  It  is  said  every  day 
in  South  African  and  English  newspapers,"  M.  Jacottet 
writes,^  "that  they  {i.e.  the  South  African  natives)  are 
children  and  ought  to  be  treated  as  children.  Whilst  this 
opinion  may  be  true  as  far  as  the  bulk  of  the  heathen 
population  is  concerned — and  even  then  not  without 
qualifications — it  is  no  more  true  of  the  large  part  of 
the  Christianised  population.  They  have  advanced  very 
quickly  and  in  a  remarkable  way  during  the  last  ten  or 
twenty  years,  and  a  large  number  of  them  have  already 
given  proofs  of  high  qualifications  which  give  them  the 
right  to  be  considered  as  being  no  more  children,  but  grown- 
up men,  able  to  hold  their  own  in  the  world,  and  who 
should  be  treated  as  such. 

"  We  have  practical  proof  of  that  in  our  mission,  and  the 
policy  we  have  adopted  for  some  years  of  giving  to  our 
churches,  and  especially  to  our  native  ministers,  a  great 
amount  of  self-government,  and  of  trusting  them,  has  been 
an  undoubted  success.  After  having  felt  our  way  for  a 
certain  time  with  our  first  native  ministers,  not  knowing 
exactly  what  special  rights  we  should  give  them,  we 
decided  in  1898  to  trust  them  entirely,  and  to  take  them 
into  our  councils  on  terms  of  equality  with  ourselves.  We 
had  then  three  fully  qualified  (ordained)  native  ministers  ; 
we  have  nine  of  them  now,  and  next  year  their  number  will 

'  See  Mr.  E.  B.  Sargant's  description  of  the  organisation  of  the 
Church  of  Basutoland  in  his  Report  oft  Education  in  Basutoland,  1905-6, 
p.  142  et  seq.  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.) 

'  In  a  letter  to  this  Committee  dated  July  28,  1906. 


vii]  THE   CHURCH   OF  BASUTOLAND  219 

have  risen  to  thirteen.  Our  decision,  which  may  have — 
in  fact,  has — seemed  rash  to  some  of  our  best  friends,  has 
proved  itself  to  have  been,  not  only  liberal,  but  very  wise, 
and  even  those  of  our  number  who  would  have  criticised  it 
at  the  time,  are  quite  content  with  it  now.  Indeed,  I  don't 
think  that  one  of  us  would  ever  think  of  discussing  it  now. 
It  is  very  likely  this  that  has  prevented  Ethiopianism  from 
making  any  headway  in  Basutoland,  and  from  harming  in 
any  way  our  churches.  We  have  had  no  secessions  to 
speak  of ;  all  our  staff,  all  our  congregations  have  never 
wavered  for  a  minute  in  their  allegiance  to  our  church. 

"  Since  the  year  1898  the  governing  body  of  our  church 
is  composed  of  the  white  missionaries  (18  in  number) 
and  the  native  ministers  (9  in  number  now,  13  next 
year).  This  Conference  directs  all  the  church  affairs, 
controls  the  finances  of  the  church,  the  schools,  etc.  In  it 
the  native  ministers  have  exactly  the  same  voting  power 
and  rights  as  the  white  missionaries.  Its  discussions  are 
conducted  in  the  native  language,  which  all  our  missionaries 
are  expected  to  speak,  and  in  fact  do  speak.  The  plan  has 
answered  uncommonly  well,  and  there  has  never  appeared 
any  racial  feeling,  even  when  we  had  to  discuss  questions 
which  might  easily  have  led  to  it.  Our  native  ministers 
have  not  been  slow  to  recognise  that  we  had  given  them 
their  full  rights,  and  that  in  working  with  us  for  the  benefit 
of  their  tribe  they  will  do  more  and  better  work  than  in 
separating  from  us  to  join  any  Ethiopian  bddy.  They 
know  that  we  want  to  educate  them — and  through  them  the 
rest  of  the  church — to  self-government,  that  we  want  to 
increase  their  influence  year  after  year,  and  that  we  do  not 
desire  to  impose  our  own  views  and  ways  upon  them.  We 
want  them  to  become  ultimately  their  own  masters  in  their 
own  church.  It  may  still  take  some  time  ;  but  we  are  far 
more  advanced  than  we  should  have  believed  it  probable 
some  years  ago.    Our  theological  school  has  now  become 


220    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [cHAP. 

a  permanent  institution,  after  having  been  only  tentative 
for  some  years  ;  and  in  a  few  years  the  native  ministers 
will  have  an  undoubted  majority  in  our  conference.  We 
are  not  afraid  of  the  prospect ;  we  know  that  they  will  be 
wise  enough  to  go  on  upon  the  same  lines,  and  to  under- 
stand that  it  is  their  interest,  and  the  interest  of  their  church, 
to  trust  us  and  to  work  with  us.  They  know  that  we  have 
only  their  interest  at  heart,  that  we  only  want  them  to 
progress  and  to  develop ;  they  trust  us,  and  will  for  ever 
be  thankful  to  our  mission  for  what  it  has  done  for  them. 

"  Each  one  of  our  native  ministers  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
one  parish,  where  he  is  nearly  in  everything  just  as  inde- 
pendent as  a  European  missionary.  We  have  now  fourteen 
parishes  directed  by  European  missionaries,  and  nine 
directed  by  native  ministers.  We  decided  at  our  last  con- 
ference upon  the  creation  of  three  new  parishes  for  native 
ministers,  and  next  year  we  may  probably  decide  upon  the 
creation  of  another  one,  so  that  we  shall  have  thirteen 
parishes  with  native  ministers,  against  fourteen  with  Euro- 
pean missionaries.  In  a  few  years'  time  the  parishes  directed 
by  native  ministers  will  be  more  numerous  than  the  others, 
as  the  number  of  native  ministers  will  increase,  whereas  our 
own  staff  will  not,  even  if  it  may  not  eventually  be  reduced. 

"  As  stated  above,  the  native  minister  has,  in  his  own 
parish,  the  full  rights  of  a  minister,  administering  the  funds, 
baptizing,  organising,  etc.,  subject,  of  course,  as  every  one, 
to  the  general  constitution  of  the  church.  The  only  dif- 
ference from  the  European  missionary  is  this :  he  is  given  one 
of  the  European  missionaries  as  his  special  adviser  in  diffi- 
cult cases.  But  this  does  not  make  him  a  minor  or  inferior. 
In  practice  he  is  just  as  free  as  I  am  myself  in  my  own 
parish.  And,  instead  of  resenting  it,  our  native  ministers 
are  glad  to  know  that  they  have  somebody  to  help  them 
with  his  advice  in  their  difficulties.  From  what  I  have 
seen  myself  personally,  and  from  what  I  hear  from  all  my 


vii]  POLICY  OF  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  221 

colleagues,  the  system  works  exceedingly  well,  and  in  the 
administration  of  their  parishes  and  their  ecclesiastical  and 
educational  work  our  native  ministers  are  not  a  bit  behind 
their  European  brethren.  They  may  lack  something  in 
administrative  faculties,  but  they  have  a  stronger  hold 
upon  the  people  and  are  wonderfully  respected  by  them. 
It  is,  as  I  said,  an  undoubted  success,  and  I  would  urge 
every  mission  to  follow  the  same  road. 

"  I  should  add  that  we  have  been  very  careful  in  choosing 
and  in  educating  our  staff.  We  only  receive  into  our  theo- 
logical school  men  who  have  been  at  work  as  teachers  or 
evangelists  for  some  years  and  whose  character  has  been 
tried.  They  must  also  have  a  fair  amount  of  knowledge, 
and  have  passed  at  least  the  third  year's  pupil  teachers' 
examination  of  the  Cape  Colony.  They  must  then  pass 
through  a  three  years'  course  of  study  ;  and,  when  they 
have  finished  their  studies,  they  have  again  to  be  tried  for 
one  or  two  years  in  the  service  of  the  church  before  being 
ordained." 

The  Church  of  England  has  adopted  a  somewhat  similar 
policy  in  Basutoland.^  Its  work  in  that  country  is  divided 
into  seven  districts  ;  a  mission  priest  is  placed  in  charge  of 
each  district ;  and  he  is  assisted  by  an  Advisory  Church 
Council  of  natives.  These  councils  appoint  representatives 
to  a  Missionary  Conference  presided  over  by  the  Bishop 
of  Bloemfontein.  There  are  only  about  twelve  white 
members  of  this  Conference,  to  which  twelve  native 
representatives  (all  laymen)  are  sent  from  Basutoland 
alone.  Its  functions  are  advisory  only,  but  although  its 
resolutions  do  not  bind  the  Bishop,  he  usually  acts  in 
accordance  with  them  :  and,  if  thought  desirable,  a 
resolution  of  this  Conference  may  be  laid  before  the 
Diocesan  Synod,  and  may  then  go  forward  to  the  Pro- 

'  See  Mr.  E.  B.  Sargant's  Report  on  Education  in  Basutoland, 
p.  i68. 


222    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :   NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap. 

vincial  Synod  for  South  Africa,  and  finally  to  the  Conference 
of  Colonial  Bishops  at  Lambeth. 

Natives  are  also  admitted  to  the  governing  body  of 
the  Wesleyan  Church  in  South  Africa.^  The  General 
Conference  of  this  church  is  constituted  of  certain  European 
official  members,  with  two  white  and  two  native  ministers 
and  two  white  and  two  native  laymen.  Under  this  General 
Conference  there  are  separate  synod  meetings  of  the 
native  ministers  and  European  missionaries.  This  system 
is  also  said  to  work  satisfactorily.  The  Wesleyans, 
Congregationalists,  and  Presbyterians  hold  that  all  ministers 
must  stand  on  an  equal  footing,  without  distinction  of 
colour  ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  any  episcopal  authority,  it 
is  a  somewhat  difficult  matter  in  these  churches  to  provide 
the  supervision  which  is  needed  by  native  congregations. 
It  seems  clear  that,  at  any  rate  for  the  present,  the  super- 
vision of  the  native  churches  must  mainly  devolve  on  the 
missionaries  ;  and  they  will  need  exceptional  discretion  and 
tact  to  perform  this  duty  efficiently  without  giving  offence 
to  their  native  colleagues.  Their  hope  of  success  lies  in  the 
natives'  need  of  guidance,  especially  perhaps  in  matters  of 
finance.  "  A  more  difficult  and  spiritual  service,"  says 
the  Rev.  F.  B.  Bridgman  in  the  paper  on  Ethiopianism 
already  referred  to,  "  never  has  the  missionary  in  this 
field  been  called  upon  to  render.  For  the  helpfulness  of 
such  service  the  native  Christian  is  ready  and  sometimes 
anxious."  It  may  be  open  to  question  whether  the  congre- 
gational system  adopted  by  some  denominations  is  well 
adapted  for  a  native  church.  It  does  not  seem  to  fit  in 
very  well  with  the  natives'  ideas  of  tribal  authority,  and 
probably  tends  to  produce  laxity  of  discipline.  It  might 
therefore  be  worth  while  for  these  churches  to  consider 
whether  they  would  not  work  more  effectively  in  South 

'  See  the  evidence  of  the  Rev.  J.  Scott  before  the  South  African 
Native  Affairs  Commission,  1903-5. 


vii]  ORGANISATION  OF  NATIVE  CHURCHES  223 

Africa  if  they  modified  their  constitution  in  order  to 
provide  some  adequate  central  authority,  representative 
both  of  their  white  and  native  members. 

The  general  principles  which  should  govern  the  organisa- 
tion of  a  native  church  were  considered  with  great  care  in 
a  paper  read  by  the  Rev.  E.  Jacottet  at  the  missionary 
conference  at  Johannesburg  in  1904.  He  advised  that 
there  should  be  complete  separation  between  the  European 
and  native  churches  ;  that  a  certain  amount  of  autonomy 
should  be  given  to  tribal  or  racial  units  within  the  church  ; 
that  the  governing  body  should  be  " distinctly  native" 
carrying  on  its  discussions  in  the  language  of  the  natives  ; 
that  the  church  should  be  self-supporting ;  that  native 
ministers  should  be  thoroughly  trained,  but  not  on  lines  cal- 
culated to  put  them  out  of  sympathy  with  their  people,  and 
that  they  should  be  ordained  and  supported  by  the  native 
church  ;  also  that  the  missionary  should  be  supported  from 
home  and  should  continue  to  supervise  the  church  only  so 
long  as  his  guidance  is  needed.  In  M.  Jacottet's  opinion, 
the  native  ministers  and  lay  delegates  on  the  governing 
body  of  the  native  church  should  have  the  same  rights  and 
voting  power  as  the  European  missionaries,  who  on  such  a 
body  would  be  acting  simply  as  ministers.  "  Some  may 
think  it  dangerous,"  he  writes.  "  I  do  not  believe  it  to  be 
so.  The  superior  insight  and  education  of  the  European 
missionary,  his  riper  Christian  character,  will  give  him  a 
great  personal  influence,  which  shall  be  only  greater  when 
it  does  not  rest  upon  mere  rights.  The  native  ministers 
are  sure  to  trust  him  when  they  see  and  feel  that  all  his 
sympathies  are  with  them.  Personal  experience  has 
taught  me  that  we  may  safely  trust  our  native  colleagues 
with  such  rights  and  powers."  M.  Jacottet  admits  that  he 
is  an  optimist,  and  that  others  do  not  share  to  the  full  his 
confidence  in  the  Christian  native ;  but  an  optimism  that 
has  survived  the  disillusions  of  a  long  missionary  career  is 


224    ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT  :    NATIVE  CHURCHES  [cHAP. 

probably   not  without  some  justification.  Missionaries 
who  approach  the  question  of  Ethiopianism  in  this  judicial 
spirit  are  rendering  a  public  service  of  great  value.  For 
it  is  evident  that  many  Colonists  are  very  imperfectly 
informed  with  regard  to  these  matters,  and  view  them  with 
a  good  deal  of  prejudice.     Baseless  accusations  are  too 
often  brought  against  Ethiopian  leaders,  and  their  objects 
are  often  misunderstood  and  misrepresented.    The  opinion 
is  widely  held  that  native  churches  are  little  more  than 
political  associations  under  a  thin  ecclesiastical  disguise, 
and   that   their    essential    purpose   is,   not   to  preach 
Christianity,  but  to  spread  the  propaganda  of  "  Africa  for 
the  Africans."    These  views  do  not  seem  to  be  justified. 
Nevertheless,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  exaggera- 
ted importance  which  has  been  attached  to  the  political 
aspects  of  the  movement  is  largely  due  to  the  mischievous, 
if  not  disloyal  and  seditious,  language  of  which  some 
of  the  Ethiopians  have  apparently  been  guilty.  And 
the  growth  of  the  native  churches  certainly  has  an  im- 
portant political  aspect.    A  large  proportion  of  the  most 
intelligent  and  best  educated  natives  are  to  be  found 
among  the  ministers  and  members  of  these  churches,  and 
many  of  them  are  keenly  interested  in  politics,  especially 
from  the  racial  standpoint.    The  native  is  accustomed 
to  the  discussion  of  tribal  affairs ;  he  has  considerable 
gifts  of  debate ;  and  politics  have  a  strong  attraction 
for  him.    The  members  of  the  native  churches  are  not 
likely  therefore  to  hold  aloof  from  political  questions ; 
and  their  experience  in  organising  themselves  for  ecclesias- 
tical purposes  no  doubt  makes  it  easier  for  them  to  over- 
come tribal  differences  and  to  form  political  associations. 
Bodies  of  this  kind  are  already  being  established,  and 
it  is  not  yet  possible  to  speak  with  confidence  as  to 
their  influence  and  objects.    Still  it  seems  clear  that  the 
political  tendencies  of  Ethiopianism    are  its  inevitable 


VII]  THE  NATIVE  AFFAIRS  COMMISSION  225 

consequences  rather  than  its  cause  ;  and  the  missionaries, 
who  are  in  the  best  position  to  judge,  and  have  studied  the 
movement  most  carefully,  are  inclined  to  admit  that  the 
importance  of  its  political  side  has  been  overestimated. 
The  most  authoritative  official  view  of  the  movement  is 
contained  in  the  report  of  the  Native  Affairs  Commission 
of  1903-5.    The  Commissioners  described  the  movement 
as  "  the  outcome  of  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  natives 
for  ecclesiastical  self-support  and  self-control,  first  taking 
tangible  form  in  the  secession  of  discontented  and  restless 
spirits  from  religious  bodies  under  the  supervision  of  Euro- 
pean missionaries  without  any  previous  external  incitation 
thereto."     And  the  Commission  reported  that  it  "is  not 
disposed   to  condemn    the    aspiration    after  religious 
independence,    unassociated   with    mischievous  political 
propaganda,  but  at  the  same  time  does  not  fail  to  recognise 
that  in  the  case  of  a  subject  race  such  an  aspiration 
misdirected  on  the  one  hand  by  the  leadership  of  ignorant 
and  misguided  men  and  repressed  by  misunderstanding  or 
harshness  on  the  other  might  be  fraught  with  the  seeds  of 
racial  mistrust  and  discontent."    The  Commission,  how- 
ever, "would   not  advise    any   measure  of  legislative 
repression,    unless   unforeseen    developments   render  it 
necessary,  considering  that  effort  should  rather  be  directed 
towards  securing  efficient  constitutional  control  and  organis- 
ation in  order  that  the  influences  at  work  may  be  wisely 
directed,  and  any  individual  cases  in  which  pastors  abuse 
the  trust  reposed  in  them,  may  be  amenable  to  authoritative 
discipline.    To  this  end  the  Commission  would  deprecate 
the  recognition  of  detached  secessionary  fragments  acknow- 
ledging no  efficient  central  authority."    In  the  opinion  of 
the  Commissioners,  recognition  should  be  accorded  "  to 
such  native  churches  as  are  possessed  of  sufficiently  stable 
organisation  to  control  their  pastors  and  enforce  discipline 
where  necessary  and  to  ensure  the  appointment  to  the 

15 


226  ETHIOPIAN  MOVEMENT:  NATIVE  CHURCHES  [chap,  vii 


ministry  of  reliable  and  worthy  men  only  " ;  but  encourage- 
ment should  not  be  given  to  "  those  bodies  which  owe 
their  existence  to  the  discontent,  or,  as  in  some  cases,  to 
the  very  misconduct  of  men  who,  with  a  following  of 
kindred  spirits,  have  severed  connection  with  their  parent 
church,  and  own  no  competent  central  authority."  In 
pursuance  of  this  policy,  the  Commissioners  recommend 
that  "  no  minister  shall  solemnise  marriages  without  being 
licensed  as  a  marriage-officer " ;  and  they  express  the 
opinion  that  by  "  a  judicious  exercise  of  the  right  to  with- 
hold such  licences "  the  Government  would  be  able  to 
differentiate  between  the  religious  organisations  which 
were  working  satisfactorily  and  those  which  were  not.  In 
this  way  the  Commissioners  hoped  that  "  what  is  worthless 
and  unstable  in  the  movement  will  dwindle  into  insignifi- 
cance, while  so  much  of  it  as  is  lasting  and  in  harmony 
with  the  true  principles  of  religious  and  social  advance- 
ment will  not  be  unduly  impeded,  but  will  grow  in  the 
fulness  of  time  to  be  a  power  for  good " ;  a  hope  which 
we  share. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


CONCLUSIONS 

This  book  has  shown,  it  is  hoped,  that  for  the  natives 
of  South  Africa  the  old  order  is  giving  place  to  a  new 
order,  and  that  the  change  is  going  on  rapidly.  Chief 
among  the  changes — and  one  which  must  be  productive 
of  others — is  the  fact  that  most  able-bodied  young  natives 
leave  their  homes  for  longer  or  shorter  periods  of  employ- 
ment elsewhere.  This  in  itself  means  a  change  in  the 
native  which  it  would  be  hard  to  overrate.  The  young 
native  does  not  go  out  to  work  as  a  permanent  wage- 
earner.  He  usually  returns  home  after  a  comparatively 
short  term  of  remunerative  employment,  bringing  with 
him  a  new  sense  of  independence  and  a  desire  to  improve 
his  lot.  Too  often,  however,  he  also  acquires  a  taste  for 
the  vices  of  the  debased  European,  which  are  alien  to  the 
morality  of  his  tribe.  Thus  the  effect  of  his  employment 
is  to  put  him  out  of  touch  not  only  with  the  unprogressive 
and  degrading  side  of  the  tribal  polity,  but  also  with  its 
wholesome  discipline  and  restraints.  In  both  directions, 
therefore,  the  economic  change  is  disintegrating  the 
tribal  society,  and  is  depriving  the  native  of  his  old 
moral  standards.  It  is  this  that  makes  of  such  vital 
importance  the  treatment  of  the  native  labourer  while 
working  for  the  white  man  and  his  protection  from  vicious 
influences.  If  he  acquired  a  standard  of  individual  responsi- 
bility, his  new  repugnance  to  the  communal  responsibility 

227 


228  CONCLUSIONS  [chap. 

and  tribal  obedience,  which  are  the  foundations  of  social 
existence  in  his  tribe,  would  not  be  so  disastrous. 

Unfortunately,  the  old  moral  order  departs  without  a 
new  moral  order  taking  its  place.  The  annual  reports  of 
the  magistrates  are  full  of  statements  as  to  the  insubor- 
dination of  the  young  men  returned  from  work.  In 
reporting  on  the  crimes  during  the  year  1904  one 
magistrate  remarks :  "  The  culprits  are  principally  from 
what  may  be  termed  the  rising  generation.  What  one 
notices  more  than  anything  else  is  the  want  of  respon- 
sibility and  trust  amongst  the  younger  people."  An  old 
and  trusted  chief,  eighty  years  old  (1905),  complained  that 
"  our  sons  elbow  us  away  from  the  boiled  mealies  in  the 
pot  when  we  reach  for  a  handful  to  eat,  saying,  '  We 
bought  these,  father.' "  This  new  spirit  of  independence 
has  already  produced  a  widespread  feeling  of  unrest  and 
change.  It  must  be  guided  in  the  direction  of  progress, 
and  not  allowed  to  lead  to  general  lawlessness. 

There  are  many  instances  in  the  official  reports  of  what 
can  be  achieved  by  such  guidance  and  of  the  mischief 
which  arises  from  its  absence.  In  Natal  a  poll-tax  was 
imposed  in  1906  upon  all  who  did  not  already  pay  hut- 
tax.  This  new  tax  fell  upon  the  young  men  who  had 
hitherto  escaped  direct  taxation,  except  in  so  far  as  they 
contributed  to  the  hut-tax  of  the  head  of  their  family. 
The  resentment  shown  by  the  young  natives  amounted  in 
some  districts  to  open  insubordination  and  defiance,  so 
much  so  that  the  imposition  of  this  poll-tax  was  referred 
to  at  the  time  as  possibly  one  of  the  causes  of  the  native 
rising  of  that  year.  In  Rhodesia,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
youths  seem  actually  to  have  welcomed  such  a  tax  as  a 
recognition  and  sign  of  their  manhood  and  independence. 

In  every  way  contact  with  the  white  man  has  some 
disintegrating  effect  on  native  society.  It  is  incumbent 
on   him  to   see   that   his   influence   is   not  destructive 


vni] 


POSSIBILITIES  OF  PROGRESS 


229 


only.  He  ought  not,  for  his  own  immediate  gain,  to  leave 
nothing  but  ruin  behind  him.  He  should  do  his  utmost 
to  direct  into  right  paths  the  force  which  he  is  unloosing^ 
The  native  has  inherited  a  law-abiding  instinct.  It  is 
therefore  all  the  more  deplorable  when  this  is  allowed  to 
be  broken  down.  The  change,  already  rapid,  will  quicken. 
In  a  few  years  many  will  have  fallen  away  from  the  tribal 
organisation ;  and  the  broken  units  of  a  tribe  do  not  become 
so  many  capable  individuals.  There  remains  the  task  of 
carrying  over  into  a  new  civilisation  the  disbanded 
members  of  an  older  and  simpler  organisation. 

The  awakened  energy  of  the  native  shows  itself  in  many 
ways.  He  falls  a  ready  victim  to  vicious  influences,  but 
he  appreciates  and  eagerly  seeks  the  benefits  of  education. 
Here  again  he  is  in  danger  of  receiving  what  is  ill-fitted 
to  his  needs.  There  is  little  doubt  that  serious  mischief 
has  been  done  by  unwise  educational  methods. 

What,  then,  are  the  avenues  along  which  the  white 
man  can  lead  these  millions  of  natives  so  dependent  upon 
him  ?  One  thing  is  clear.  The  results  achieved  by  the 
missionaries  of  the  various  churches  show  that  by  religious 
and  moral  training  and  education  adapted  to  his  needs 
and  capacities,  the  native  can  be  fitted  to  fill  a  place  of 
great  usefulness  in  the  community.  He  can  be  raised  to 
higher  levels  of  living.  He  can  be  disciplined  in  habits 
of  independence  and  self-control.  But  the  work  of  the 
missionaries  needs  general  recognition  and  support.  And 
the  necessary  incentives  to  progress  should  be  offered  to 
the  native  in  no  grudging  spirit.  The  native  who  wins 
his  way  from  the  kraal  to  positions  of  responsibility  and 
trust  should  not  find  his  path  beset  with  obstacles.  If 
he  shows  himself  able  and  willing  to  become  a  useful 
citizen,  it  should  be  made  easy  for  him  to  do  so  and  to 
train  his  children  to  follow  his  example. 

How  far  are  these  conditions  realised  ?    In  Cape  Colony 


230  CONCLUSIONS  [chap. 

the  native  has  an  open  door.  He  can  buy  land  ;  he  can 
qualify  for  the  franchise  on  the  same  terms  as  the  white 
man.  Apparently  he  can  legally  become  a  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  There  are  certain  laws  {e.g.  the 
Liquor  Laws)  which  apply  only  to  natives.  But  for  most 
purposes  the  native  in  the  Colony  proper  has  practically 
the  same  civil  and  political  rights  as  the  white  man.  In 
Natal  the  purchase  of  land  by  a  native  is  permitted.  But 
it  is  difificult  for  him  to  obtain  exemption  from  native 
law,  and  practically  impossible  to  become  a  voter.^  In 
the  Transvaal  he  can  hold  land  and  can  obtain  exemption 
from  native  law,  but  he  has  no  political  rights.  In  the 
Orange  River  Colony  he  cannot  buy  or  lease  land  ;  he  has 
no  political  rights  ;  and,  unless  he  is  a  minister  or  teacher, 
he  cannot  get  exemption  from  native  law. 

To  what  extent  the  natives  should  receive  political 
rights  is  a  question  which  South  Africa  must  determine 
for  herself.  But  something  should  be  done  to  meet  the 
higher  wants  and  satisfy  the  aspirations  of  those  who  are 
now  a  disturbing  element.  In  Cape  Colony  some  attempts 
are  made  to  meet  their  needs  and  provide  an  outlet  for 
their  energy  by  the  gradual  extension  of  district  councils, 
by  the  encouragement  of  education,  and  by  the  intro- 
duction of  individual  tenure  of  land.  In  Natal,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  question  seems  hardly  to  have  been  taken 
up  in  any  practical  or  far-sighted  manner.  From  the 
report  of  the  Commission  (1907)  it  seems  clear  that  a 
policy  must  be  laid  down  which  shall  deal  with  such 
questions  as  congestion,  uncertainty  of  tenure  and  of 
boundaries,  excessive  burdens  arising  from  rents  or  interest 
on  money  borrowed.  These  and  many  other  grievances 
lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  native  unrest  which  this,  "  the 
oldest  colony  in  South  Africa,"  has  found  herself  compelled 
to  crush  with  an  iron  hand  during  the  last  two  years. 

'  Only  two  or  three  natives  have  been  given  the  franchise  in  Natal. 


viii]  OCCUPATIONS  AND  EDUCATION  23 1 

Another  fact  is  to  be  recognised.  The  mass  of  the 
natives  are,  and  must  long  remain,  an  agricultural  people. 
It  is  essential,  therefore,  for  their  future  development, 
that  ample  land  should  be  reserved  for  their  use,  and 
every  possible  effort  should  be  made  to  teach  and  encourage 
them  to  improve  their  methods  of  cultivation.  This  is  the 
natural  and  healthy  direction  for  native  progress  to  take. 
When  they  are  ready  for  emancipation  from  the  tribal 
system,  opportunities  should  be  freely  afforded  them  of 
becoming  farmers  or  cultivators  on  their  own  account. 
As  the  native  agriculturist  becomes  more  efficient  and 
better  educated,  his  growing  requirements  will  not  only 
make  him  personally  more  thrifty  and  industrious,  but  will 
provide  openings  for  other  natives  as  more  or  less  skilled 
artisans.  Instruction  in  agriculture  needs,  therefore,  to  be 
supplemented  by  industrial  training.  In  the  future  many 
natives  should  find  occupation  among  their  own  people, 
as  well  as  among  the  whites,  as  carpenters,  builders,  and 
blacksmiths,  and  in  similar  capacities. 

Unfortunately  there  has  been  no  purpose  common  to 
all  the  colonies  in  the  education  of  the  native  to  take 
some  predetermined  place  in  the  body  politic  or  even  in 
the  industrial  ranks  of  the  community.  What  education 
he  has  got  in  the  past  has  been  in  the  main  only  provided 
by  many  missionary  societies,  each  working  in  its  own  way. 
Grafted  on  to  this,  the  prevalent  spirit  of  independence 
has  given  rise  to  political  organisations  and  a  native  press, 
and  has  produced  the  widespread  Ethiopian  movement. 
Everywhere  guidance  and  control  are  required  rather  than 
repression.  In  all  the  provision  for  education  there  is 
need  of  adaptation  to  the  life  and  future  requirements  of 
the  native. 

The  questions  of  administration,  taxation,  and  franchise 
also  will  have  to  be  faced  in  this  spirit.  At  present,  at 
all  points  there  is  felt  to  be  an  antagonism  between  the 


232  CONCLUSIONS  [chap. 

interests  of  whites  and  natives.    They  are  not  working  for 

a  common  end.  How  can  a  stable  State  be  built  on  such 
a  foundation  ?  The  aim  must  be  to  find  some  construc- 
tive policy,  some  check  upon  the  demoralisation  which 
follows  so  easily  and  unhappily  contact  between  the  two 
races.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  the  natives,  where 
properly  led,  have  shown  themselves  in  the  past  truthful 
and  law-abiding.  Individuals  among  them,  including  some 
of  the  great  chiefs,  are  capable  of  understanding  very  high 
standards  both  of  loyalty  and  of  administration.  These 
qualities  it  must  be  the  policy  to  develop  and  restore,  so 
that,  at  any  rate,  the  best  of  the  natives  may  feel  that 
both  races  are  working  to  a  common  end.  Several 
important  Commissions  have  sat,  and  much  information 
has  been  gathered,  showing  clearly  whither  the  old  policy 
has  led.  The  white  man  has  had  what  he  asked  for. 
He  has  broken  the  lazy  quiet  of  the  native,  and  induced 
him  to  come  out  and  work  for  him.  He  has  taught  him 
incidentally  much  that  clashes  with  his  life  at  home.  He 
has  made  that  life  impossible.  The  Colonists  often  com- 
plain that  those  who  are  concerned  for  the  interests  of  the 
natives  are  unable  to  appreciate  the  vital  importance  of 
keeping  a  firm  hand  over  them.  Yet  the  future  of  the 
colonies  must  be  seriously  imperilled  if  there  is  much 
further  delay  in  substituting  a  real  scheme  of  progress  for 
the  present  destruction  of  native  tribal  traditions. 

To  frame  a  policy  suitable  for  the  new  and  unstable 
conditions  of  the  native  communities  is  no  easy  task. 
The  detribalised  and  educated  natives — now  fast  increasing 
in  number — will  more  and  more  have  to  be  considered. 
The  growing  influence  of  the  native  press  must  be  reckoned 
with.  Scope  will  have  to  be  allowed  for  the  legitimate 
ambitions  of  the  natives.  The  true  safety  against  wild 
schemes  will  be  in  outlets  for  reasonable  aspirations.  To 
keep  wide  open  the  door  of  hope  is  essential  to  a  wise 


VIIl] 


FUTURE  POLICY 


233 


policy.  It  is  true  that  the  policy  of  the  future  will 
need  to  be  firm,  but  it  will  also  need  to  be  consistent 
and  studious  of  native  interests.  Above  all,  it  should  be 
based  on  a  clearer  conception  than  at  present  exists 
of  the  true  relations  between  the  two  races.  This  may 
have  to  be  reached  by  the  long  pathway  of  experience 
and  experiment.  But  at  least  it  is  possible  to  recognise 
the  direction  and  spirit  in  which  it  should  be  sought. 
The  Colonist  himself  often  describes  this  relationship  as 
one  of  guardian  and  ward.  However  incomplete  this 
conception  may  be,  we  do  not  doubt  the  sincerity  of  those 
who  adopt  it.  In  the  work  of  the  Commissions  on  Native 
Affairs  we  have  a  detailed  scrutiny  of  the  extent  to  which 
the  duties  of  guardianship  and  trust  are  performed.  Can 
it  be  said  that  the  guardians  or  trustees  have  seen  to 
the  education  of  those  for  whom  they  act  ?  Have  they 
avoided  squandering  or  wasting  the  estate  of  their  ward  ? 
In  the  account  which  they  render  of  their  stewardship, 
do  they  show  that  they  have  acted  for  the  best  for  their 
ward,  and  have  not  exploited  him  for  their  own  purposes  ? 
These  tests  could  hardly  be  satisfied  by  the  policy  of  the 
past.  Will  the  policy  of  the  future  conform  to  them  ? 
In  this  book  facts  are  told  which  make  the  outlook 
hopeful. 


STATUTES,  ORDINANCES,  PROCLAMATIONS, 

Etc. 


Cape  Colony 

PAGE 

Act  No.  i6  of  i860  (Marriages)  130 

„     „    17  „  1864  (Certificates  of  Citizenship)  .       .  .  134 

„     „    18  „  1864  (Native  Successions)  134 

»     »    37  !>  1884  (Native  Locations)  53«. 

„     „    39,,  1887  (Native  Registered  Voters' Relief)       .       .  134 

))     )>    33  »  1892  (Native  Locations)  53«. 

„  „  25  „  1894  (Glen  Grey)  .  48,  58-61,  74,  75,  80,  110-2,  148-9 
„  „  28  „  1898  (Liquor  Law  Amendment)  .  .  .  122,132 
„  „  5  „  1899  (Native  Labour  Locations)  .  .  .  53«-,  55 
„  ,,15  „  1899  (Glen  Grey  Amendment)  ....  58 
„     „    30  „  1899  (Native  Locations  Amendment)   .  53-5,  78-9,  83, 

86,91 

„  „  40  „  1902  (Native  Reserve  Locations)  .  .  .  56,  122 
„  „  8  „  1905  (Native  Reserve  Locations  Amendment)  .  56 
„     „    14  „  1905  (Glen  Grey  Amendment)     ....  58 

»     ),    35  ).  1905  (School  Board)  143 

Proclamation  No.  1 10  of  1879  (The  Transkei)    .       .       .  .129 

Transkeian  Penal  Code  of  1886  102,  129 

Government  Notice  No.  241  of  1901  (Liquor)     ....  124 

Natal 

Letters  Patent  Appointing  Trust  for  Native  Lands  in  Natal — 

Government  Notice  No.  57  of  1864  62 

Law  No.  28  of  1865  (Relief  from  Operation  of  Native  Law)  125-6 
Act  No.  19  of  1891  (Code  of  Native  Law)  103-4,  109-10, 116, 119,  123, 

129,  132 

„     „    38  „  1896  (Liquor)  124,  127 

»     »    37  ))  1897  (Zululand  Annexation)  64 

„     „    49,,  1898  (Administration  of  Justice)    .       .       .  128,129 

„     „    49  »  1901  (Passes)  88 

„  „  48  „  1903  (Squatters'  Rent  Law  Amendment)  .  .  93 
„  „  49  „  1903  (Mission  Reserves)  .  .  .  .  62, 93 
„    „     I  „  1906  (Firearms  and  Ammunition) .      .       .       .  123 

234 


STATUTES,  ORDINANCES,  ETC.  235 
The  Transvaal 

PAGE 

Law  No.  24  of  1895  (Hut-Tax)   123 

„     „     3  „  1897  (Marriages  of  Coloured  People)  .       .  .133 

„         15     1899  (Gold  Law)   90 

Proclamation  No.  37  of  1901  (Passes)   123 

Ordinance  No.  20  of  1902  (Native  Tax)   82 

32  „  1902  (Liquor)   123 

Proclamation  No.  18,  Administration  1903  (Passes)   ...  90 

Ordinance  No.  27  of  1903  (Passes)   123 

„         „  29,,  1903  (Marriages  between  Coloured  Persons)  133 

„         „  46  „  1903  (Immorality)   123 

„         „  32  „  1905  (Coloured  Labourers'  Health  Regula- 
tions)   28 

„         „   20  „  1906  (Native  Tax  Amendment")  ...  84 

„         „  23  „  1907  (Registration  and  Control  of  Dogs)   .  89 

„         „   25  „  1907  (Education)  i68«. 

The  Orange  River  Colony 

Law  No.  8  of  1893  (Coloured  People  in  Towns  and  Villages)     .  123 

„     „   4  „  1895  (Native  Passes  and  Squatting)     ...  69 

Ordinance  No.  2  of  1904  (Poll-Tax  Consolidation)     ...  84 

„          „  6  „  1907  (Native  Reserves  Management)  .       .  91 

Southern  Rhodesia 

Proclamation  of  1891   107 

„          „  October  14,  1896   71 

Regulation  No.  240  of  1898   124 

Ordinance  No.  21  of  1904  (Native  Tax)   84 

North- Western  Rhodesia 

Proclamation  No.  16  of  1905   84 

High  Commissioner's  Notice  No.  33  of  1905      ....  85 

North-Eastern  Rhodesia 

Hut-Tax  Regulations,  1900   85 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate 

Proclamation  No.  64  of  1869   127 

„  113  „  1881   127 

„     I  „  1907  (Hut-Tax)  85 


INDEX 


Aborigines,  training  schools  for 
teachers,  144 

Adams,  Dr.,  of  the  American 
Zulu  Mission,  149 

Addison,  R.  H.,  on  the  efiect  of 
the  poll-tax  in  Natal,  92,  93 

Administration,  general  features, 
98-101  ;  existing  laws  and 
administrative  systems,  101-7  ; 
jurisdiction  and  duties  of  Euro- 
pean officers  and  native  chiefs, 
108-10  ;  councils  as  an  aid 
to,  1 10-13  ;  the  future,  113-20, 
231-3 

Adviser,    Native,     in  Orange 

River  Colony,  105 
African   Methodist  Episcopalian 

Church,  145,  162,  168,  169,  194, 

195,  197,  199-205,  207,  213,  214 ; 

The  Voice  of  Missions,  202,  203 
Agriculture.  See  Natives  and  Land 

Tenure 

Allen,  Richard,  first  Bishop  of  the 

African  Methodist  Episcopalian 

Church,  200 
Amakola  natives,  150  n. 
Amakusha,  209 
Amanzimtote  Institution,  149 
Amazansi  natives,  18 
American  Board  of  Missions,  its 

Zulu  Mission,  149,  173,  208,  209 
American      Coloured  Baptist 

Church,  205 
American  Methodist  Church  in 

Rhodesia,  173 
Anglican  Church.    See  Church  of 

England 


Apostolic  Holiness  Communion, 
209 

Appleyard,  Rev.  W.,  translator 

of  Kafir  Bible,  142 
Arbousset,  M.,  155 
Artisans,  39,  231 
Ashton,  Mr.,  139 

Asiatics  in  South  Africa  (see  also 

Chinese),  7 
Attaway,   Rev.   A.   H.,  African 

Methodist  Episcopalian  Church, 

203,  204 

Bantu  natives.    See  Natives 
Baptists.    See  American 
Barnes,   G.   W.,   on  natives  at 

Kimberley,  36 
Barnett,  P.  A.,  Director  of  Educa- 
tion in  Natal,  on  native  ser- 
vants, 187 
Bastards,  126,  127 
Basutoland,  area  and  population 
of,  7,  98  ;  European  goods 
purchased  by  natives,  11,  87  ; 
agricultural  stock  of  natives, 
II  ;  recruiting  for  mines,  29, 
30  ;  labour  passes,  167  n.  ; 
native  artisans,  39  ;  land  ten- 
ure, 71  ;  hut-tax,  82-4 ;  cus- 
toms duties,  87  ;  licence  fees, 
89  ;  expenses  of  administra- 
tion borne  by  natives,  91  ; 
administrative  system  and 
jurisdiction  of  chiefs,  106-9  ; 
council  of,  1 12-3  ;  operation 
of  native  law,  130 ;  marriage 
law,  132 ;  Paris  Evangelical 
237 


238 


INDEX 


and  other  missions,  155-62 ; 
native  education,  see  Educa- 
tion ;  small  progress  of  Ethio- 
pianism,  219 ;  Church  of 
Basutoland,  157,  217-21 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  The, 
area  and  population  of,  7,  98  ; 
natives  employed  on  Transvaal 
mines,  29,  30 ;  land  tenure, 
70-1,  72  n.  ;  hut-tax,  83  ;  in- 
crease of  hut- tax,  85 ;  ad- 
ministrative system  and  juris- 
diction of  chiefs,  99,  io6-g  ; 
definition  of  "  Native,"  127  ; 
missions  in,  139,  176  ;  native 
education,  see  Education  ;  na- 
tive churches,  176 

Berlin  Missionary  Society,  142, 
167,  168,  170,  171,  172 

Bethel  Institute,  The,  in  Cape- 
town, 145,  203 

Bloemfontein,  native  artisans,  39, 
158  ;  native  location  at,  70  ; 
diocese  of,  140 

Blythswood  Institution,  140,  146 

Booth,  Joseph,  208 

Boyce,  Rev.  W.,  Kafir  grammar, 
142 

Brander,  Rev.  S.  J.,  207 

Bridgman,  Rev.  F.  B.,  the  Ethio- 
pian Movement,  192  w.,  210, 
222 

British  Central  Africa,  recruiting 

in,  28,  29,  31 
Brownlee,  W.  T.,  on  farming,  20  ; 

on  treatment  of  natives,  26  ; 

on  individual  tenure,  60 
Butterworth  district,  individual 

tenure,  58,  59,  60 

Callaway,  Dr.,  first  Bishop  of  St. 
John's,  140 

Cameron,  Rev.  W.  W.,  Coadjutor- 
Bishop  of  Capetown,  on  the 
Order  of  Ethiopia  and  native 
churches,  192  n.,  197,  198,  216 

Cape  Colony  {see  also  Transkeian 
Territories),  area  and  popula- 
tion of,  7,  98  ;  occupations  of  | 


natives  and  other  coloured 
people,  6-10 ;  wages  of  na- 
tives, see  Wages  ;  farm  labour, 
1 3-8  ;  natives  selling  wool,  1 1  ; 
coloured  and  native  farmers 
and  owners  of  land,  18-20,  57-8, 
76-8  ;  natives  on  diamond 
mines,  35-6  ;  natives  employed 
in  Transvaal  mines,  26,  29,  30, 
32  ;  natives  on  coal  mines, 
36-7  ;  dock  labourers,  37,  40  ; 
railway  employees,  37-8  ;  na- 
tives in  postal  service,  38  ; 
domestic  servants,  38  ;  com- 
munal tenure  of  land,  52-3  ; 
locations,  see  Reserves  and 
Locations  ;  individual  tenure, 
52,  58-61,  III,  230;  local 
self-government,  52,  61,  89, 
1 1 0-2,  230;  wasteful  user  of 
land,  72-3  ;  trading  sites  in 
reserves,  78  ;  hut-tax,  82-3, 
86 ;  customs  duties,  87-8  ; 
road  rates,  91  ;  existing  laws 
and  administrative  systems, 
99-103  ;  definition  of  "  Na- 
tive," 122  ;  legal  status  of 
natives,  125,  229-30 ;  opera- 
tion of  native  law,  129  ;  mar- 
riage law,  130-3  ;  law  of 
succession,  133-4  ;  missions  in, 
138-42  ;  native  education,  see 
Education ;  native  churches, 
192-207,  208 
Cape,  Native  Locations  Acts,  53-7, 
78.  79 

Cape  Town,  payment  of  labourers, 
37  ;  domestic  service,  38  ;  lo- 
cations at,  40,  57 

Casalis,  M.,  155,  160 

Census,  of  population,  7,  98  ;  of 
occupations,  9 

Chiefs,  position  and  jurisdiction 
of,  103,  104,  105,  106,  108-10, 
113,  115,  116,  117-8 

Chinese  labour,  6  n.,  24,  25 

Christian  Express  on  Ethiopian 
Movement,  192  n. 

Churchof  England,  schools,  in  Cape 


INDEX 


239 


Colony,  140-1,  146  ;  in  Natal, 
149,  153  ;  in  Basutoland,  161, 
162,  165  ;  in  the  Transvaal, 
168,  170 ;  in  Rhodesia,  173, 
176  ;  and  the  Ethiopian  Move- 
ment, 195-9  ;  secessions  from, 
207,  215  ;  policy  of,  215,  216, 
221 

Churches  in  South  Africa,  192- 
226 

Clarke,  Sir  Marshal,  K.C.M.G., 
167 ;  on  native  education, 
187 

Coal  mines,  employment  of  na- 
tives in,  36,  37 

Codes  of  native  law,  see  Statutes, 
etc.,  234 

Coloured  people,  occupations  of, 
6,  9,  19  ;  census  of,  7  ;  schools 
for,  138,  143,  151,  168 

Colquhoun,  A.,  on  policy  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  missions,  215 

Commissioners,  powers  of  resi- 
dent and  native,  loo-i,  106, 
107,  108,  117,  119-20 

Communal  tenure,  52-3,  61-6,  69, 
72-4 

Compound   managers  and  over- 

'   seers,  21,  26,  30 

Compounds,  25,  26,  28,  35,  36 

Contracts  of  employment,  see 
Labourers 

Coppin,  Bishop,  African  Metho- 
dist Episcopalian  Church,  200-2 

Coryndon,  R.  T.,  on  allocation  of 
taxes,  91 

Councils,  native.  See  Local  Self- 
Govemment 

Cromer,  Earl  of,  on  taxation,  96 

Gumming,  J.  P.,  on  land  tenure, 
60 

Customs  duties,  86-8,  91 

Dale,  Sir  Langham,  Basuto  edu- 
cation, 163 

De  Beers  Co.,  native  employees, 
35.  36 

De  Villiers,  Sir  J.  H.,  K.C.M.G., 
Chief  Justice,  defines  a  "  Na- 


tive," 124  ;  on  laws  of  Trans- 

keian  Territories,  128  n. 
Deposit  and  Remittance  Agency 

for  natives  on  the  Rand,  22 
Diamond  mines,  natives  employed 

in,  35.  36 
Dickson,    Captain    Quayle,  on 

individual  tenure,  74,  75 
Dog-tax,  88,  89,  93 
Domestic  servants.    See  Servants 
Dube,  John,  school  in  charge  of, 

153 

Dugmore,  G.  E.,  on  labour  loca- 
tions, 55,  56 ;  on  right  of 
natives  to  purchase  land,  76 

Durban,  native  locations,  41 

Dutch  Reformed  Church,  142  ; 
in  Transvaal,  167,  168  ;  in 
Orange  River  Colony,  172  ; 
in  Rhodesia,  173  ;  in  Bechu- 
analand,  176 

Duthie,  Dr.,  Director  of  Native 
Education  (Rhodesia),  174 

Dwane,  Rev.  J.  M.,  the  Ethiopian 
Church,  and  the  Order  of 
Ethiopia,  193-9 

East  and  West,  the.  The  Ethiopian 

Movement,  192  n. 
East  London,  locations  at,  57 
Education  :  growing  appreciation 
of,  by  natives,  136,  188  ;  in- 
creasing support  of,  by  whites, 
136,  188-9  ;  function  of,  137  ; 
necessity  of,  18,  50,  175,  185-7, 
229  ;  Government  schools  : 
Cape  Colony,  142,  143  ;  Natal, 
151  ;  Basutoland,  162,  163-4, 
165 ;  Transvaal,  168 ;  Orange 
River  Colony,  iy2.  Missions  and 
schools:  Cape  Colony,  138-49; 
Natal,  149-55  ;  Basutoland,  155— 
67;  Transvaal,  iSy-yi ;  Orange 
River  Colony,  171-2;  Rhodesia, 
lyz-G;  Bechuanaland  Protector- 
ate, T.j6-y.  Statistics  of  schools : 
Cape  Colony,  143-4  '•  Natal,  151 ; 
Basutoland,  157-8,  161-2,  165; 
Transvaal,  168 ;   Orange  River 


240 


INDEX 


Colony,  172 ;  Rhodesia,  174 ; 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  176. 
Government  Grants :  Cape 
Colony,  139,  141,  142,  144; 
Natal,  152  ;  Basutoland,  162-3, 
164,  165  ;  Transvaal,  168-9,  171  ', 
Orange  River  Colony,  17 1-2 ; 
Rhodesia,  173-4;  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate,  1 76  ;  Curriculum  in 
schools — Cape  Colony,  145-6  ; 
Natal,  152-3 ;  Basutoland, 
160-1  ;  Transvaal,  169.  Need 
of  changes  in  curriculum,  165-6, 

177-  8,  180-2,  229  ;  importance 
of  using  native  languages  in 
schools,  166,  180,  181-2.  In- 
dustrial training :  Cape  Colony, 
146;  Natal,  152, 153 ;  Basutoland, 
158-9,  161,  162,  163-4,  165-6; 
Transvaal,  169, 170;  OrangeRiver 
Colony,  172;  Rhodesia,  173, 
174,  175,  176 ;  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate,  iy6.  Training  of 
teachers  and  higher  education  : 
Cape  Colony,  144,  146-8  ;  Natal, 
I53>  154;  Basutoland,  158-9, 
160,  162,  164,  166 ;  Transvaal, 
170;  Bechuanaland  Protectorate, 
176.  Inter-State  Native  Col- 
lege, 179,  182-4;  fees  and 
contributions  by  natives,  140, 
144,  148,  154,  158,  161,  162, 
163,  164,  165,  169,  172.  175, 
176 ;  education  rate  under 
Glen  Grey  Act,  148-9  ;  schools 
opened  by  natives,  144-5,  ^SJ- 
162,  169,  176,  199,  203,  206 ; 
natives  sent  to  schools  in 
United  States,  147,  204 ;  re- 
commendations of  Native 
Affairs    Commission,  1903-5, 

178-  182  ;  recommendations  of 
Natal  Native]  Affairs  Commis- 
sion, 1906-7,  154-5  ;  Mr.  E.  B. 
Sargant  on,  see  Sargant,  E.  B. 

Elliot,  Sir  Henry,  on  educated 

natives,  186 
Emancipation  Act  of  1834,  99 
Emgwali,  girls'  school  at,  140,  146 


Engcobo  district,  individual  ten- 
ure, 61 

Estcourt,  levy  of  poll-tax,  92 
Etheridge,  Rev.  E.  H.,  on  educa- 
tion in  Rhodesia,  174-5 
Ethiopia,  the  Order  of,  145,  195-g 
Ethiopian   Church,   the,  193-7, 
199,  207 

Ethiopian    Catholic    Church  in 

Zion,  207 
Ethiopian  Movement,  192-226 
Evans,  Maurice  S.,  C.M.G.,  The 

Native  Problem  in  Natal,  50 
Exemption  from  native  law,  42, 

125-  6,  230 

Farmers,  18,  19  ;  farm  labourers, 

see  Labourers 
Federation,  South  African,  114-5, 

134 

Fees  of  Court,  88 

Field,  J.  J.,  on  land  tenure  in 

Natal,  63 
Fines,  88 

Fingos,  census  of,  7  ;  as  owners 

of  land,  72,  77 
Flogging,  21 

Fogarty,  Mr.,  Director  of  Maseru 

industrial  school,  164 
Food  of  native  labourers.  See 

Labourers 
Foxon,  F.  E.,  on  ejectments,  63 
Franchise,  61,  100,  230 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  {see  also 

United  Free),  139,  140,  209 

Genadendal  Educational  Institu- 
tion, 139 

Glasgow  Missionary  Society,  139 

Glen  Grey  Acts,  58-61,  72,  74,  75, 
80,  89,  1 10-3,  148,  149 

Gold  mines,  employment  of  na- 
tives in,  20-35 

Goodwin,  Rev.  W.  A.,  The 
Ethiopian  Order  in  South  A  frica, 
198 

Gordon  Memorial  Mission,  209 

Gosselin,  M.,  155 

Grahamstown,  schools  at,  141, 146 


INDEX 


241 


Gray,  Dr.,  first  Bishop  of  Cape- 
town, 140 

Grey,  Sir  George,  Governor,  1 1 1 , 
140,  141 

Griquas,  census  of,  7 

Gunn,  Hugh,  Director  of  Educa- 
tion (Orange  River  Colony),  172 

Half  castes,  126,  127 
Hall,  E.  Gilbert,  land  surveyor,  58 
Headmen,  powers  of,  108,  109, 
110,  112 

Healdtown,  Wesleyan  Institution 
at,  141 

Health  of  native  labourers.  See 
Labourers 

Hemming,  John,  on  native  land- 
owners, 76-8 

Hermannsburg  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Missionary  Society,  167 

Hottentots,  occupations  of,  6  ; 
census  of,  7  ;  schools  for,  138 

Hull,  E.  A.,  on  farm  labour,  17 

Hut-tax,  82-6,  91,  92-6,  228 

Idutywa  district,  individual  ten- 
ure, 58,  60 

Illegitimate  children,  127,  128 

Independent  Native  Presbyterian 
Church,  207 

Indians,  census  of,  7  n. 

Individual  tenure,  52,  57-61,  62, 
65,  66,  69,  71,  72,  74-80 

Industries,  native,  2 

Indwe  mines,  37,  46,  55-6 

Inspectors  of  natives,  2 1 

Intoxicants,  22,  35,  56 

Jabavu,  Tengo,  Editor  of  The 
Imvo,  i^y 

Jacottet,  Rev.  E.,  Head  of 
Theological  College  at  Thaba 
Bosiu,  159  ;  on  African  Metho- 
dist Episcopalian  Church,  214  ; 
on  Church  of  Basutoland,  218- 
221  ;  on  native  churches,  223 

Jesuits,  173,  215 

Johannesburg  [see  also  Witwaters- 
rand)    labour    agencies,    22  ; 


inquiry  into  treatment  of  na- 
tives, 26  ;  domestic  service,  38  ; 
native  location,  40,  68 
Junod,   Rev.   H.  A.,  on  native 
languages,  181 

Kafirs.    See  Natives 

Keiskama  Hoek,  Church  of  Eng- 
land Institution  at,  141 

Kentani  district,  individual  ten- 
ure, 60 

Key,  Dr.,  Bishop  of  St.  John's,  140 
Kidd,  Dudley,  The  Essential  Kafir, 
2  n. 

Kimberley,  diamond  mines,  35  ; 

compound  system,  36  ;  native 

locations,  40 
King,   W.   A.,   on   collection  of 

Crown  rents,  67 
Knight,  J.  L.,  on  land  tenure,  64 
Kraal    heads,    in    Natal,    100  ; 

Kraal  natives,  see  Natives 
Kuys,  F.,  on  wasteful  methods  of 

natives  on  the  land,  73 

Labour  agents,  21,  26,  30,  31 

Labour  bureaux,  in  Transvaal, 
23  ;  in  Rhodesia,  34,  35 

Labour,  supply  of,  42-51  ;  white 
unskilled,  44-6 

Labour  taxes,  20,  48,  49 

Labour  tenants,  12,  15,  16,  54-5, 
62-4,  66-7,  69-70,  71,  78-9 

Labourers,  supply  of,  20,  21,  23-5, 
29.  32,  34,  42-4  ;  increase  of 
day  labourers,  40 ;  migratory, 
5,  ro,  227  ;  on  farms,  12-20  ; 
on  mines,  20-37  ;  in  other 
industrial  and  commercial  em- 
ployments, 37-41  ;  recruiting 
of,  21,  28-32,  35,  47  ;  contracts 
of  employment,  21,  29,  30,  32, 
34i  35  ;  wages  of,  see  Wages  ; 
savings  of,  10,  22  ;  treatment, 
accommodation,  and  food  of, 
13,  14,  21,  22,  25,  26,  27,  35, 
36,  37,  46  ;  compensation  for 
accidents  to,  28  ;  transport  of, 
21,  26,  30,  31,  46  ;  health  of, 

16 


242 


INDEX 


on  Transvaal  mines,  26-8,  31  ; 
locations  for,  37,  39-41,  46,  47  ; 
need  of  improving  efficiency 
of,  17,  18,  46,  50  ;  compulsory- 
labour  and  labour  taxes,  48,  49 

Lagden,  Sir  Godfrey,  K.C.M.G., 
on  recruiting  of  labourers,  47  ; 
on  native  location  at  Klipspruit, 
68  ;  on  administration,  98-120 

Lamplough,  Mr.,  Wesley  an  mis- 
sionary, 193 

Land  tenure  (see  also  Reserves  and 
Locations,  Communal  Tenure, 
Individual  Tenure,  and  Glen 
Grey  Act),  in  Cape  Colony,  52- 
61  ;  in  Natal  and  Zululand, 
61-6  ;  in  Transvaal,  66-8  ;  in 
Swaziland,  68  ;  in  Orange 
River  Colony,  68-70  ;  in  Bechu- 
analand  Protectorate,  70 ;  in 
Basutoland,  71  ;  in  Southern 
Rhodesia,  71  ;  summary  of, 
72-81 

Laws.  See  Statutes,  etc.,  supra, 
P-  234 

Leary,  A.  S.,  on  native  trade, 
87,  88 

Leloaleng,  school  at,  158 
Lerothodi,  Basuto  chief,  163 
Leselinyana,   The,  native  paper, 
161 

Liquors,  alcoholic.  See  Intoxi- 
cants 

Lloyd,  C.  A.,  on  town  locations,  57 
Local  self-government  [see  also 
Glen  Grey  Act  and  Transkeian 
Territories  General  Council),  52, 
61,  65,  89,  110-3,  118-9,  230 
Locations  (see  also  Reserves  and 
Locations),  on  farms,  15,  i6, 
53-5,  56,  62,  66-7,  69,  71-2, 
78-9  ;  town  and  mining  loca- 
tions, 37,  40-1,  55,  68,  70,  79, 
81 

London  Missionary  Society,  139, 
146 ;  in  Rhodesia,  172-5  ;  in 
Bechuanaland,  139,  176 

Lovedale  Institution,  139,  145-8, 
164.  176,  189-91 


Lovedale  Mission,  205-7 
Lutheran  schools,  142,  176 

Mabille,  M.,  161 

Magistrates,  powers  of  resident, 
loo-i,   102-3,  105- 
108,  117,  iig,  129 

Mahommedan  marriages,  130 

Makone,  Rev.  M.  M.,  The  Ethio- 
pian Church,  193,  207 

Marriage  laws,  130-3 

Maseru,  industrial  school  near, 
163-4 

Mashonaland,  labour  in,  2  ;  census 
of,  7  ;  diocese  of,  140 

Matabele,  occupations  of  the,  i  ; 
census  of,  7  ;  as  farm  labourers, 
17,  18  ;  as  owners  of  land,  72 

May,  Barry,  on  increase  of  hut- 
tax  Ln  Bechuanaland  Protec- 
torate, 85 

Mbiyana,  Rev.,  209 

MUner,  Viscount,  on  rate  of 
mortality,  27  ;  sanctions  grants 
for  education,  163,  164 

Mining  and  the  natives,  20-37 

Mission  Reserves,  62,  63,  93 

Missions  (see  also  Education  and 
Native  Churches),  American 
Board  of,  149,  173,  208,  209  ; 
in  Basutoland,  155-62 ;  in 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate, 
176  ;  Berlin  Societj^  167,  168, 
170-2  ;  in  Cape  Colony,  138- 
142  ;  Glasgow  Society,  139  ; 
Gordon  Memorial,  209 ;  Her- 
mannsburg  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Society,  167 ;  London 
Society,  139,  146,  172-7  ;  Love- 
dale, 139,  205-7 ;  Moravian, 
138,  139 ;  in  Natal,  149 ;  in 
Orange  River  Colony,  171,  172  ; 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission  So- 
ciety, 142,  155-6,  165,  217-21  ; 
in  Rhodesia,  172-4 ;  Swiss, 
168,  170  ;  conference  in  Natal, 
192  n.,  210 ;  conference  at 
Johannesburg,  211,  213,  214; 
in  Transvaal,  167-8  ;  Wesleyan 


INDEX 


Methodist  Society,  141,  142, 
146,  149,  153,  168,  171-4,  193. 
194,  209 

Moffat,  Livingstone,  on  farm  la- 
bour, 17,  18 

Moffat,  R.,  139 

Mokalapa,  William,  201 

Mopeli,  P.,  68-9,  172 

Moravians,  Missions  of,  138,  139 

Morija  Institution  and  Mission, 
the,  158,  159,  161,  176 

Moroka,  reserve  at,  68-9 

Morris,  Rev.  C.  S.,  205 

Moshesh,  the  Basuto  chief,  155, 
156. 157 

Mozambiques,  census,  7  ;  re- 
cruiting for  mines,  29  ;  supply 
of  labour,  43 

Muir,  Dr.,  Superintendent-General 
of  Education  (Cape  Colony), 
143,  145.  146,  148,  163 

Municipal  locations.  See  Loca- 
tions 

Mzimba,  Rev.  P.  J.,  forms  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Africa, 
205-7 

Namaquas,  7  n.  ;  missions  to  the, 
141 

Natal  {see  also  Zululand),  area  and 
population  of,  7,  98  ;  statistics 
as  to  occupations  of  natives 
and  other  coloured  people,  8-10  ; 
labour  tenancy,  16  ;  farm  la- 
bour, 16-7  ;  coloured  and 
native  farmers  and  owners  of 
land,  19,  62 ;  recruiting  of 
natives  for  Transvaal  mines, 
31  ;  agency  on  Rand,  22  n.  ; 
natives  on  coal  mines,  36  ; 
wages  of  natives,  see  Wages  ; 
lawlessness,  40  ;  "  togt  "  la- 
bourers, 40  41  ;  com- 
pulsory labour  on  roads  and 
public  works,  49,  93,  95  ; 
apprenticeship  of  young  na- 
tives recommended,  50  ;  loca- 
tions, see  Reserves  and  Lo- 
cations ;  difficulties  of  present 


system,  62-6,  230  ;  wasteful 
user  of  land,  73  ;  dissatis- 
faction of  natives,  80,  228,  230  ; 
hut-  and  poll-tax,  83,  92-6, 
228  ;  dog-tax,  88  ;  pass  fees, 
etc.,  88  ;  existing  laws  and 
administrative  system,  103-4, 
109,  118-20  ;  definition  of 
"  Native,"  122-4  :  exempted 
natives,  125-6,  230  ;  opera- 
tion of  native  law,  128-9 ; 
marriage  law,  132  ;  law  of 
succession,  133  ;  native  educa- 
tion, .  see  Education  ;  native 
churches,  208-9 
Natal  Native  Trust,  the,  62 
Native  Affairs  Commission 
(Inter-Colonial),  1903-5,  11  ; 
farming,  14,  17,  19  ;  labour 
question,  30,  35,  39,  42,  43,  46, 
48,  49,  51  ;  land  tenure,  52, 
53  57.  58,  62,  66,  67,  69, 
72,  73,  74,  75  ;  taxation,  86  ; 
population,  98,  99  ;  bastards 
or  half-castes,  127  ;  education, 
169,  178-82  ;  Ethiopian  move- 
ment, 192  200,  201,  225, 
226 

Native  Affairs  Commission  (Natal), 
1906-7,  farming,  16  ;  labour, 
36,  49,  50  ;  land  tenure,  64-6, 
80 ;  taxation,  93-5  ;  educa- 
tion, 154-5  ;  administration, 
119-20,  135  ;  status,  134 

Native  Affairs  Department  (Trans- 
vaal), 22,  26-8,  89,  105 

Native  churches,  192-226 

Native  languages.  See  Educa- 
tion 

Native  law,  operation  of,  and 
special  legislation  as  to  natives, 
99-106,  1 16-9,  121-2,  128-30, 
230 

Natives  (see  also  Labourers),  oc- 
cupations of,  1-51  ;  agriculture, 
I,  10,  II,  231  ;  industries,  2,  72- 
4  ;  need  of  spirit  of  industry, 
3  ;  migratory  labour,  5  ;  census 
of,  7,  98  ;    progress  of  kraal. 


244 


INDEX 


IO-I2  ;  as  farmers,  farm  la- 
bourers, and  labour  tenants, 
1 2 -20  ;  on  mines,  20-37  '• 
health  of,  26,  27,  28  ;  in  other 
industrial,  commercial,  and  do- 
mestic employments,  37-41  ; 
in  professional  occupations,  41, 
42  ;  the  labour  question,  4, 
42-51  ;  growing  industry  of 
natives,  51,  227  ;  land  tenure, 
52-81  ;  hut-  and  poll-tax,  82-6, 
92-6  ;  customs  duties,  86-8  ; 
fees  on  passes,  88-91  ;  ex- 
penditure for  benefit  of,  91  ; 
taxation  for  labour  purposes, 
97 ;  administration  of  native 
afiairs,  98-120  ;  legal  status  of, 
42,  99-100,  121-35,  229-30  ; 
definitions  of  a  "  Native,"  122- 
5 ;  operation  of  native  law, 
128  ;  special  legislation  as  to 
natives,  130 ;  marriage  law, 
130-3  ;  succession  law,  133-5  '• 
education  of,  136-91  ;  native 
churches,  192-226 ;  effects  of 
white  influence,  3,  40,  114, 
227-33 

Natives  of  South  Africa,   58  m., 

146  M. 
Ndabeni  location,  57 
Nqamakwe    district,  individual 

tenure  in,  58,  59 
Newcastle  Colliery,  treatment  of 

natives,  37 

Occupations  of  natives.  See  Na- 
tives and  Labourers 

O'Connell,  J.  H.,  on  purchase  of 
land  by  natives,  57 

Orange  River  Colony,  the,  area 
and  population  of,  7,  98  ; 
statistics  cis  to  occupations  of 
natives  and  other  coloured 
people,  8-10  ;  wages  of  natives, 
see  Wages  ;  coloured  and  native 
farmers,  19  ;  natives  employed 
on  Transvaal  mines,  29,  30  ; 
natives  employed  on  diamond 
and  coal  mines,  35,  36 ;  do- 


mestic servants,  38  ;  employ- 
ment of  native  carpenters  and 
builders  on  town  work  for- 
bidden at  Bloemfontein,  39 ; 
land  tenure,  68-70  ;  reserves 
at  Witzies  Hoek,  and  Moroka, 
68-9  ;  natives  forbidden  to 
purchase  or  lease  land,  69,  230  ; 
Bloemfontein  location,  70  ;  na- 
tive population  scattered,  80, 
104  ;  poll-tax,  83-4  ;  location- 
tax,  91  ;  administrative  sys- 
tem, 105  ;  definition  of 
"  Coloured  Person,"  123  ;  ex- 
empted natives,  126,  230 ; 
marriage  law,  133  ;  native 
education,  see  Education  ;  na- 
tive churches,  206 
Ordinances,  see  Statutes,  etc.,  234 

Paris  Evangelical  Mission  So- 
ciety, 142  ;  work  in  Basuto- 
land,  155-6,  165,  217-21 

Pass  system,  21,  90 ;  fees  on 
passes,  88-90 

Pease,  Sir  A.  E.,  on  wasteful 
methods  of  natives  on  land,  73 

Penal  code,  102 

PoUce,  native,  9,  107 

Poll-tax,  82-6,  91-6,  228 

Population,  census  of,  7,  98 

Portuguese  natives.  See  Mozam- 
biques 

Presbyterian  Church  of  Africa, 

145.  205-7 
Pretoria,  domestic  service  at,  38  ; 

diocese  of,  140 
Primogeniture,  11 1 
Proclamations,  See  Statutes,  etc., 

234 

Professional  occupations,  41-2, 186 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  So- 
ciety for  the,  140 
Puller,  Rev.  F.  W.,  Tke  Ethiopian 
Movement,  192  n.,  198 

Rand,  the.    See  Witwatersrand 
Recruiting  of  labourers.    See  La- 
bourers 


INDEX 


245 


Reserves  and  Locations  (see  also 
Locations  and  Mission  Re- 
serves), 52-3,  56,  62-75,  78, 
80,  231 

Resident  magistrate,  his  duties, 

102,  103 
Rest-houses,  30 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  Glen  Grey  Act, 
110;  mission  scliool,  173 

Rhodesia,  Southern,  area  and 
population  of,  7,  98  ;  occupa- 
tions of  natives,  g  ;  the  Mata- 
bele  as  farm  labourers,  17  ; 
recruiting  of  natives,  30,  31, 
33-5 ;  natives  employed  on 
mines,  33-6  ;  wages,  see  Wages  ; 
taxation  for  labour  purposes, 
48,  97  ;  land  tenure,  71-2  ; 
hut-  and  poll-tax,  82-5,  228  ; 
administrative  system,  loi,  107; 
powers  of  native  commissioners, 
107-8  ;  definition  of  "  Native," 
124  ;  marriage  law,  131-2  ; 
education  of  natives,  see  Educa- 
tion ;  native  churches,  see 
Native  Churches 

Rhodesia,  North- Western,  hut- 
and  poll-tax,  82-5  ;  appro- 
priation of  portion  of  native 
tax  for  education  of  natives, 
91-2 

Rhodesia,  North-Eastern,  hut- 
tax,  82,  83,  85 

Roberts,  S.  H.,  on  locations.  54  n. 

Roman  Catholics,  church  organi- 
sation, 215  ;  schools,  142, 
146 ;  in  Natal,  149 ;  in 
Basutoland,  161,  165 

St.  Helena,  census,  7  n.  ;  diocese 
of,  140 

Samuelson,  S.  O.,  on  the  Natal 
Commission,  118-20 

Sargant,  E.  B.,  report  on  native 
education,  136  137,  165,  166, 
189,  204,  210,  217  ;  reports  on 
Basutoland  education,  136  n., 
158,  160,  218  n.  ;  on  technical 
instruction,  180 


Saunders,  Sir  C.  J.  R.,  on  taxa- 
tion of  natives,  86 

Schmidt,  George,  Moravian  mis- 
sionary, 138 

School  Board  Act,  1905  (Cape 
Colony),  143 

Schools.    See  Education 

Scottish  Presbyterian  Missions, 
139 

Servants,  38-9,  49 

Shaw,  Rev.  B.,  and  Shaw,  Rev. 
W.,  Wesleyan  missionaries,  141 

Simpson,  J.,  on  wages  and  treat- 
ment of  farm  labourers,  13,  14 

Sloley,  H.  C,  on  individual  tenure, 
74,  75 

Smith,  Bishop,  African  Methodist 
Episcopalian  Church,  200,  201, 
214 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of 

the  Gospel,  140 
Squatters,  16,  54-5,  62,  64-6,  67, 

69-70,  78-9 
Stanford,  Col.  W.  E.,  C.M.G.,  on 

individual  tenure,  74,  75  ;  on 

purchase  of   land  by  natives, 

75-6 

Stanford,  A.  H.,  26 

Status  of  natives,  42,  99-100, 
121-35.  229-30 

Statutes,  Ordinances  and  Pro- 
clamations, etc.    See  pp.  234-5 

Stewart,  Dr.  James,  Dawn  in  the 
Dark  Continent,  136  m.  ;  Love- 
dale  Mission,  140,  183,  184 

Strachan,  D.,  on  wasteful  methods 
of  natives,  72,  73 

Stuart,  Mr.,  on  spirit  of  lawless- 
ness among  the  younger  natives, 
40 

Succession  law,  133-4 

Supreme  Chief,  Governor  as,  100- 
I,  103,  104,  119 

Swaziland,  area  and  population 
of,  7,  98  ;  occupations  of  na- 
tives, 9 ;  natives  employed 
on  Transvaal  mines,  29,  30 ; 
land  tenure,  68  ;  poll-tax,  83 

Swiss  Mission,  168,  170 


246 


INDEX 


Taxation  of  natives,  82-97  •  ten- 
dency to  substitute  poll-tax  for 
hut-tax,  82  ;  hut-tax,  82-6, 
91,  92-6,  228  ;  poll-tax,  82-6, 
91,  92-6,  228  ;  additional  tax 
where  native  has  more  than 
one  wife,  82-5 ;  table  giving 
particulars  of  hut-  and  poll- 
taxes  and  showing  amounts 
collected,  83  ;  recent  increase 
of,  84-5  ;  uniform  system  ad- 
vocated, 86  ;  customs  duties, 
86-8,  91  ;  fees  on  passes,  88, 
89,  90  ;  licence  fees,  88-9  ; 
dog-tax,  88,  89,  93  ;  fines  and 
fees  of  court,  88  ;  marriage 
fees  (Natal),  88  ;  local  rates, 
89  ;  road  rates  (Cape  Colony), 
91  ;  location  tax  (Orange  River 
Colony),  91  ;  expenditure  for 
benefit  of  natives,  91-2  ;  cost  of 
administration  and  fair  share 
therein  of  native  population, 
91  ;  importance  of  maintaining 
accustomed  methods  of,  92  ; 
road  work  (Natal  and  Zulu- 
land),  49,  95  ;  effect  of  poll- 
tax  in  Natal,  92-5,  228  ;  Earl 
Cromer  on  advantages  of  low 
taxation,  96  ;  taxation  for 
labour  purposes,  20,  48-9,  97 

Taylor,  Mr.,  Chief  Native  Com- 
missioner for  Matabeleland,  on 
need  of  schools,  175 

Teachers,  training  of.  See  Educa- 
tion 

Tembuland,  individual  tenure, 
61  ;  marriage  law,  130,  131  ; 
The  Church  of  the  Tembus,  192, 
205,  210 

Thaba  Bosiu,  fortress    of,  156; 

mission   at,    157 ;  theological 

school  at,  158,  159 
Thaba  'Nchu,  schools  at,  172 
Theal,    Dr.,    History    of  South 

Africa,  136  n. 
Thompson,  N.  O.,  on  individual 

tenure,  60 
Tiger's  Kloof,  Institution  of  Lon- 


don Missionary  Society  at, 
146,  176 

Tile,   Nehemiah,    Church   of  the 

Tembus,  193,  210 
Togt  men,  40,  41 
Town  locations.    See  Locations 
Trade,  native,  2,  11,  81,  87-8 
Transkeian  Territories   [see  also 
Cape  Colony),   population  of, 
52  ;  communal  tenure,  53,  77  ; 
Crown  and  private  locations, 
56 ;    individual  tenure,  58-61, 
77,  III  ;  local  self-government, 
61,  89,  110-2  ;    wasteful  user 
of  land,  72-3  ;  supply  of  mine 
labourers  from,  80 ;  hut-tax, 
83  ;     customs    duties,    87-8  ; 
existing    laws    and  adminis- 
trative systems,  10 1-3  ;  penal 
code,  102,  129  ;    operation  of 
native  law,  129  ;  native  educa- 
tion,   see    Education  ;  native 
churches,  see  Native  Churches  ; 
Transkeian  Territories  General 
Council,  89,  1 10-2,  148,  183 
Transport  of  labourers.    See  La- 
bourers 

Transvaal,  the,  area  and  popula- 
tion of,  7,  98  ;  statistics  as  to 
occupations  of  natives  and  other 
coloured  people,  8-10 ;  wages 
in,  see  Wages  ;  farm  labourers, 
17  ;  coloured  farmers,  19 ; 
natives  on  mines,  20-33,  35,  36  ; 
domestic  servants,  38  ;  supply 
and  demand  for  native  labour 
in,  42-3  ;  Chinese  labour,  24, 
25  ;  white  unskilled  labour, 
44-6  ;  land  tenure,  66-8  ;  na- 
tive ownership  of  land,  66,  77  ; 
squatting,  66-7  ;  town  loca- 
tions, 40-1,  68  ;  wasteful  user 
of  land,  73-4 ;  tribal  units 
broken  up,  80  ;  poll-tax,  82-5  ; 
pass  fees,  89-90  ;  dog-tax,  89'; 
administrative  system,  105-6, 
108-9  ;  definition  of  "  Native," 
123  ;  exempted  natives,  126, 
230;     marriage   law,  132-3; 


INDEX 


247 


law  of  succession,  133  ;  native 
education,  see  Education  ;  na- 
tive churches,  193,  197,  199, 
200,  206-9 
Transvaal  Labour  Commission,  24, 
42-4 

Transvaal  Mining  Industry  Com- 
mission, 45-6 

Trappist,  schools,  153  ;  mission- 
aries, 215 

Treatment  of  labourers.  See  La- 
bourers 

Tribal   system    breaking  down, 

4,  5-6,  115-20,  227-9 
Tsewu,  Rev.  E.,  207 
Tsomo  district,  individual  tenure, 

58 

Turner,  Bishop,  African  Metho- 
dist Episcopalian  Church,  194, 
195.  199 

Uhlanga  Church,  209 

United  Free  Church,  schools,  140, 

146,  149 ;  secessions  from,  205-7, 

209 

Vanderkemp,  Dr.,  139 

Van  Lier,  Dr.,  138 

Village  Settlements,  65,  119,  204 

Vryburg,     Institution  London 

Missionary  Society  near,  146, 

176 

Wages  of  natives,  12,  13,  23,  25, 

26,  29,  30,  32,  34,  35,  36,  37, 

38,  39,  46,  49 
Warner,    C.    J.,    on  individual 

tenure,  59,  60 
Watersmeet,  proposed  institution 

at,  154 

Weir,  J.  W.,  Inter-State  Native 

College,  183 
Wesleyan   Methodist  Missionary 


Society  and  education,  141, 
142,  146  ;  schools  in  Natal,  149, 
153  ;  in  the  Transvaal,  168, 
170  ;  in  Orange  River  Colony, 
171,  172  ;  in  Rhodesia,  173, 
174  ;  secessions  from,  193,  194, 
209 ;  Wesleyan  Church  or- 
ganisation, 222 

White,  Bishop  of  Anglican 
Church,  200 

Whiteside,  Rev.  J.,  History  of 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  of 
South  Africa,  136  n. 

Wilder,  Rev.  J.  A.,  D.D.,  209 

Willoughby,  Rev.  H.  W.,  176 

Witwatersrand,  the,  natives  on, 
21-33  ;  Chinese  labour,  24,  25 

Witwatersrand,  the.  Native  La- 
bour Association,  28-33 

Witzies  Hoek,  reserve  at,  68-9 

Women,  their  work,  i,  2  ;  as 
domestic  servants,  38,  49 

Woodrooffe,  Canon  H.  R.,  on  land 
tenure,  61 

Woollen  goods  sold  to  natives, 
II,  87,  88 

Zonnebloem    College,    140,  145, 

147,  148,  164 
Zulu  Congregational  Church,  208- 

209 

Zululand  [see  also  Natal),  area 
and  population  of,  7,  98  ;  oc- 
cupations of  natives,  8-11  ; 
land  tenure,  62-6  ;  Land  Com- 
mission, 64-5  ;  hut-  and  poll- 
tax,  83,  92-6,  228  ;  dog-tax,  88, 
93  ;  fees  on  passes,  etc.,  88  ; 
code  of  native  laws,  103  ; 
diocese  of,  140  ;  education  in, 
see  Education  ;  American  Mis- 
sion, 149  ;  Zulu  Congrega 
tional  Church,  20S 


PRINTED  BY 
HAZELL,  WATSON  AND  VINEY,  LD. 
LONDON  AND  AVLESBURY. 


DATE  DUE 

GAYLORD 

PRl  NT  ED  IN  U-  S,  A. 

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